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【转帖】TOEFL 背景知识

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发表于 10-3-2005 11:03:30|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层 |阅读模式
<P><B><FONT face=新宋体 color=#0000ff size=2>了解一些背景知识,有助于提高听力和阅读水平。</FONT></B></P>
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<P><B><FONT face=新宋体>背景知识(BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE)(转自太傻)</FONT></B></P>
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<P><B>听力背景知识</B><B>
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<P>长段子中的4的背景知识: <B>Troy 特洛伊</B>
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<P><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>荷马史诗<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>包括《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》两部长诗,被认为是古希腊最伟大的作品,也是欧洲文学中最古老、最杰出的叙事诗。相传史诗的作者是古希腊盲诗人荷马。他生于爱奥尼亚(今土耳其西海岸),生存年代约是公元前8世纪的后半叶。



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<P>《伊利亚特》共24卷,15693行,记载了希腊联军攻陷特洛伊城的10年战争,而主要描述战争最后一年的一个事件,着重描绘了希腊英雄阿基里斯的的伟大形象。



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<P>相传在古希腊的弗提亚地方,有个叫珀琉斯的国王举行婚礼。他邀请了奥林匹斯山上的众神出席,却把专管争吵的女神厄里斯给忘记了。厄里斯便挑起是非,偷偷把一个写着<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>送给最美丽的女神<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的金苹果放在了婚礼宴席上。参加喜宴的天后赫拉、智慧女神雅典娜、爱与美之神阿芙罗狄蒂(即罗马神话中的维纳斯)都认为自己是美丽的,应该得到这个金苹果,于是争吵起来。天神宙斯无法,只得让她们去特洛伊,让特洛伊王子帕里斯判定金苹果该给谁。当3位女神见到帕里斯后,都争着向他许愿:赫拉愿给他权力和财宝;雅典娜愿给他胜利和智慧;阿芙罗狄蒂愿让他挑选世界上最美丽的女子为妻。结果,帕里斯把金苹果判给了阿芙罗狄蒂。阿芙罗狄蒂便与帕里斯约定帮他得到世界第一美女。 </P>
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<P>大约在公元前12世纪,希腊半岛上建立了许多小王国,斯巴达是其中的一个。一天,斯巴达王宫来了两位尊贵的客人,他就是特洛伊国王普里阿摩斯和他的二儿子帕里斯。特洛伊是小亚细亚半岛(今土耳其)上的一个小王国。斯巴达国王米雷劳斯以隆重的礼节欢迎两位贵宾,连年轻的王后海伦也亲自出来接待。海伦是当时全希腊最美丽的女人。帕里斯禁不住看了她两眼,顿时动心。海伦见了这位英俊的王子,也感到满心欢喜。



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<P>当晚,趁斯巴达国王外出的时候,帕里斯在阿芙罗狄蒂的帮助下,拐走了海伦,乘船逃回特洛伊。 </P>
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<P>蒙受奇耻大辱的斯巴达国王,立刻找到他的哥哥、另一个小国迈锡尼的国王阿加米农商量,决定向全希腊各王国求助。于是,以阿加米农为统帅,组织了10万希腊联系,乘坐1013艘战船,越过爱琴海攻打特洛伊城。战争进行了10年之久,希腊世界的英雄们纷纷登场出战。其中主将阿基里斯骁勇善战,伊萨卡岛的国王奥德修斯留下美丽的妻子皮娜洛普和刚出生的儿子特勒马卡斯,也加入了希腊联军。 </P>
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<P>《伊利亚特》正是从战争的第10年初开始描写的。这个时候,战争已僵持不下,而希腊联军内部也发生了矛盾。当时,希腊联军的统帅阿加米农夺走了主将阿基里斯心爱的女俘虏布里塞斯,屡建奇功的阿基里斯恼怒万分而拒绝出战,使希腊联军陷入困境,阿加米农、奥德修斯等将领都受了伤。而特洛伊王国主将、太子赫克托在宙斯和阿波罗的鼓动下,反倒向希腊联军营寨发起了进攻,企图烧毁希腊人的战船,情况万分危急。这时,阿基里斯把自己的盔甲和盾牌送给好友帕特洛克拉穿上,让他出阵应战。特洛伊人以为是希腊英雄阿基里斯本人出战了,纷纷不战而退。精明的赫克托仔细观察发现,穿阿基里斯盔甲的那个希腊将领,并不是阿基里斯本人,便出其不意地冲上前,把帕特洛克拉杀死。



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<P>悲痛欲绝的阿基里斯,再也按捺不住了,决定与阿加米农和好,重新参战,要与赫克托决战。阿基里斯身先士卒,冲锋陷阵,把特洛伊军队打得大败,并亲手杀死了赫克托。双方分别为帕特洛克拉和赫克托举行了隆重的葬礼,并约定双方休战12天。《伊利亚特》写到此就结束了。



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<P>根据其他一些文献记载,战争继续进行。据说,特洛伊军队发誓要报仇,但要杀死阿基里斯是很困难的。传说在阿基里斯出生后,被母亲提着脚跟浸在冥河水中,所以他全身刀枪不入,只有脚跟因被母亲握着没有被冥河水浸过,所以留下一个致命弱点。帕里斯知道了阿基里斯的这个弱点,从远处用暗箭射中他的脚跟,杀死了英雄阿基里斯。因此,直到现在,欧洲人还把<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>致命伤<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>叫做<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>阿基里斯的脚跟<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。之后,帕里斯也被希腊弓箭手射死。



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<P>最后,足智多谋的奥德修斯献出了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>木马计<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,米阿加米农所采纳。希腊军队佯败,弃一匹巨大的木马而逃。特洛伊人被骗,把<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>战利品<FONT face="Times New Roman">”——</FONT>木马拖进城里。当晚,藏在木马腹内的20名希腊士兵杀出,打开城门,里应外合,特洛伊立刻被攻陷,遭到大肆杀掠和大火,全城被毁。老国王和大多数男人被杀死,妇女和儿童被出卖为奴,海伦又被带回希腊,持续10年之久的战争终于结束。



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<P>3000多年过去了,<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>木马计<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的故事却一直在全世界流传着。



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<P>《奥德赛》(意指奥德修斯之歌)、共24卷、12110行。叙述特洛伊战争后,希腊英雄、伊萨卡岛国王奥德修斯在海上漂流10年,经历种种艰险,最后回到家乡与家人团聚的故事。



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<P>希腊联军在特洛伊城内大肆屠杀和掠夺后,回国途中触怒了天神。天神掀起了一阵大风暴,大多数战船沉没了,剩下的少数人,由奥德修斯带领,在大海上漂泊。他和同伴最初是往北航行,结果遇到土人袭击,接着转向西航行,不幸又遭遇大风暴,被吹到北非岸边的食莲人的国度。在那里,有几个奥德修斯的属下吃了食莲人吃的一种甜果,沉醉在甜味中而不愿再回家乡。奥德修斯便带领其余的人回船后继续向北航行,不久来到了独眼巨人族的领地。独眼巨人波吕斐摩斯(海神波塞冬的儿子)非常残忍,把奥德修斯和他带上岸的12名属下关进岩洞里,每天吃掉2个人。奥德修斯用酒灌醉巨人,削尖一根巨大的木杆,用火烤热后,和4名同伴一起捅瞎了巨人的独眼,得以逃生。



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<P>南下的奥德修斯一行人漂到了风神所在的岛。风神送给他们一只风袋,西风送他们一行往东平安地通过西西里岛和意大利半岛之间的墨西拿海峡驶入爱奥尼亚海。当他们举目可见家乡的海岸时,一直认为风袋里装有财宝的几个同伴,趁奥德修斯睡觉时,打开了风袋,结果吹起逆风,又把他们吹回风神岛。风神认为奥德修斯违逆众神的意志,把他们一行赶出岛外。



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<P>他们又漂流海上,来到据说可能位于撒丁岛和科西嘉岛之间的一个小岛,却遭到了食人族的攻击,几个同伴被吃掉。奥德修斯率其余同伴登上唯一未遭破坏的船逃回海上,漂到女巫塞西居住的艾艾伊岛。由副将欧吕洛卡斯率22人先登岛侦察。一座石造的宫殿吸引了他们。其实这就是塞西的宫殿。除欧吕卡洛斯外,大家都进入宫殿,并痛快地大吃乳酪、糖蜜、大麦和葡萄酒掺杂魔法药草的饮料,结果大伙都变成了猪。欧吕卡洛斯飞身返回船上向奥德修斯报告。奥德修斯立刻前往塞西的宫殿。他在途中遇到传令神赫美斯化身的英俊青年,获得一株可战胜魔法的魔力草,使自己免遭变猪,并用刀逼塞西恢复了同伴的原形。之后,奥德修斯在岛上停留了一年,还与塞西生下一子特勒格诺斯。



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<P>在同伴的一致要求下,奥德修斯告别塞西继续航行,在经过海妖塞壬的岛时,奥德修斯用塞西教的方法用蜡将同伴们的耳朵都封起来,再把自己绑在船桅上,这样他们才没被塞壬的甜蜜歌声引诱而断送性命。



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<P>他们在经过一个海峡时,又被女魔西拉抓走6个同伴。大家拼命划桨才脱离了险境,随后来到太阳神赫利俄斯居住的特里那基耶岛。由于粮食耗尽,几个同伴趁奥德修斯睡着之际偷杀了太阳神养的神牛。愤怒的太阳神请求天神宙斯惩罚。宙斯放出雷电击碎了他们的船,所有人都沉入海底,只剩下奥德修斯一人漂流到了仙女克吕普索的岛上,被她强留住了7年。



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<P>因女神雅典娜的请求,天神宙斯赦免了奥德修斯。奥德修斯乘坐木筏,终于回到已阔别20年的家乡伊萨卡岛。



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<P>话又说回去,当特洛伊战争结束后,奥德修斯的妻子皮娜洛普一直不见丈夫回来,有传闻他已死在异域。奥德修斯不在家时,先后有100多人聚集他家,向他漂亮的妻子求婚,并终日设宴消耗他家的财产。皮娜洛普拒绝了所有求婚者,她坚信丈夫会回来的。



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<P>奥德修斯回到自己的国家后,雅典娜女神把他变成一个流浪汉,在一个养猪人家同儿子特勒马卡斯见面。一身流浪汉打扮的奥德修斯来到宫殿,只有他的爱犬阿果斯认出昔日的主人,但高声大叫后却断了气。奥德修斯在儿子和仆人的帮助下把前来求婚的贵族恶少全部杀死,终于和妻子拥抱团聚,重新做了国王。



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<P>《荷马史诗》内容曲折离奇,语言瑰丽多彩,是古希腊艺术史上的一颗明珠。



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<P>世人了解欧洲文明的起源,总是从了解古希腊文明开始的。因为希腊人开启了西方哲学、科学、艺术、文学和历史。古希腊曾经光耀世界。但是,在1870年以前,历史学家根据当时掌握的史料,只能将希腊的历史追溯到公元前7-8世纪。尽管家喻户晓的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>荷马史诗<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>描述了希腊史前的故事,但学者们认为,盲诗人荷马的史诗,最初是许多民间行吟歌手的集体口头创作,因而不能当作历史,只能视为神话传说。



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<P><B>然而,</B><B>3000多年之后,一个叫海因里希</B><B><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT></B><B>施里曼的德国商人,就是凭着《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》的指点,在小亚细亚西北端等地获得了惊人的发现</B><B><FONT face="Times New Roman">——</FONT></B><B>挖掘出湮没</B><B>3000多年的特洛伊古城等大量历史遗迹,于是得出震惊世界的结论:</B><B><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></B><B>荷马史诗</B><B><FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></B><B>就是一部希腊史前文明史,把古希腊文明史向前推进了</B><B>8-10个世纪。《奥德赛》这部几乎完全与海洋有关的叙事长诗,可以说是以地中海为舞台,根据当时海上交通非常繁盛的历史事实写成,绝非凭空杜撰的产物。在它的背后,还反映出希腊人海上交易和腓尼基人活动的情景。《奥德赛》主要舞台的地中海中部和东部海域的海底今天仍然长眠着许多古代的商船和古物。 </B>
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<P>特洛伊的繁盛并非单单依赖贸易往来,从出土的许多纺缍车可以推知,纺织品的生产才是其繁荣的重要原因。这就使特洛伊成为了同样以生产纺织品为主的迈锡尼的一个强劲竞争对手。特洛伊战争或许就是为了争夺纺织品交易霸权而引起的。



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<P>施里曼创造性的发掘所取得的辉煌成就,使他成为了现代考古学的开拓者。
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粗体字部分好象听力考试中有问题.



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[此贴子已经被作者于2005-3-11 14:32:00编辑过]
发表于 10-3-2005 11:05:49|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
小狮租房
<P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>听力段子6:<B normal">汞污染</B><p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  汞是在常温下唯一呈液态的金属元素。在自然界里大部分汞与硫结合成硫化汞(HgS),亦称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>辰砂<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>或<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>朱砂<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,广泛地分布在地壳表层。辰砂及其多晶体偏辰砂是主要的含汞矿源。随着自然的演化,环境的各个因素中都可能含有汞,形成汞的天然本底。汞的本底对判断环境中的汞污染程度很有意义。地壳中汞的平均丰度为0.08ppm,土壤中为0.03~0.3ppm,大气中为0.1~1.0ppt。汞在大气中呈蒸汽态,因而雨水中也有汞,平均浓度为0.2ppb。水中汞的本底浓度,内陆地下水为0.1ppb,海水为0.03一2ppb,泉水可达80ppb以上,湖水、河水一般不超过0.1ppb。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  人类活动造成水体汞污染,主要来自氯碱、塑料、电池、电子等工业排放的废水。据估计,1970~1979年全世界由于人类活动直接向水体排放汞的总量约1.6万吨;排向大气的总汞量达10万吨左右;排入土壤总汞约为10万吨,而排向大气和土壤的也将随着水循环回归入水体。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  由于天然本底情况下汞在大气、土壤和水体中均有分布,所以汞的迁移转化也在陆、水、空之间发生。大气中气态和颗粒态的汞随风飘散,一部分通过湿沉降或干沉降落到地面或水体中。土壤中的汞可挥发进入大气,也可被降水冲淋进入地面水和渗透入地下水中。地面水中的汞一部分由于挥发而进入大气,大部分则沉淀进入底泥。底泥中的汞,不论呈何种形态,都会直接或间接地在微生物的作用下转化为甲基汞或二甲基汞。二甲基汞在酸性条件可以分解为甲基汞。甲基汞可溶于水,因此又从底泥回到水中。水生生物摄入的甲基汞,可以在体内积累,并通过食物链不断富集。受汞污染水体中的鱼,体内甲基汞浓度可比水中高上万倍,危及鱼类并通过食物链危害人体。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  汞虽然是一种累积性毒物,但人体对汞具有一定的排泄能力。试验表明,成年人每天摄人0.025毫克的甲基汞,由于人体排泄能力使之不会在身体内累积,若摄入量超过人体的排泄能力,会在体内累积。日本的水俣病,就是在大脑中累积了甲基汞,损害脑组织所致。在人体其他组织中的金属汞,可能氧化成离子状态,并转移到肾中蓄积起来。人体受汞慢性中毒的临床表现,主要是神经性症状,有头痛、头晕、肢体麻木和疼痛、肌肉震颤、运动失调等。大量吸入汞蒸汽会出现急性汞中毒,其症候为肝炎、肾炎、蛋白尿和尿毒症等。这类病有严重的后遗症和较高的死亡率,还可以通过母体遗传给婴儿。在我国松花江和蓟河流域的一些渔民体内有明显的汞积累,而且已经出现了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>拟似水俣病<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的病人。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  由于汞的毒性强,产生中毒的剂量就小,因此我国饮水、农田灌溉,都要求汞的含量不得超过</FONT><FONT size=2>0.001毫克/升,渔业用水要求汞不得超过0.005毫克/升。
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  汞中毒,通常又叫<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>水俣病<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。首次出现是在1933年的日本九州熊本县。刚才所提到的5号病,实际上就是汞中毒。汞中毒有一定的征兆性,开始是走路不稳,面容痴呆,尔后耳聋眼瞎,重者全身麻痹,最后精神失常,以至死亡。这是因为汞中毒是一种神经中毒,可以造成全身性的神经损害。但是汞中毒又是可以预测的。当时在日本就发现了一种猫,被称为舞蹈猫。原本正常的猫,走路变得摇摇晃晃,就像跳舞一样。为什么猫会先得病呢?这是因为猫去吃水俣湾里的鱼,而水俣湾的水受到污染汞含量超标。汞被鱼吸收富集,再通过食物链转到猫和人的体内。猫因为吃鱼多,所以先中毒。猫得了舞蹈病,也就是水俣病,这时人还可以进行及时的救治。这是因为人体内的汞含量还没有达到临界值,一旦到达临界值,就很难进行治疗了。所以说,汞中毒还是有一定的可预见性的。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  还有就是,在香港有一些人发现自己经常感冒,总感觉很累,经常头痛、失眠、颈椎痛、腰痛,而且久治不愈。经过化验,发现这些人体内的汞比一般人都高,病因就是这些人爱吃海鱼。类似的情况在日本水俣,农民的发病率就要比渔民低得多。概括地讲,在被污染的水域浅水鱼的汞含量相对较高,深海鱼类相比较来说则低得多。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  有人预测,本世纪将流行精神病,因为汞的中毒主要是损伤神经,所以说体内汞含量太高,就有可能得精神病。七十年代中国精神病发病率是3.2<FONT face="Times New Roman">‰</FONT>,现在上升到15.56<FONT face="Times New Roman">‰</FONT>,大约一千五百万人。增长速度是非常快的。 </FONT><p></p></P>
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:05:11|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><B normal">考古中的</B><B normal">relative dating和absolute dating:</B><p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>Dating Methods in Archaeology<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>If there is one fundamental issue on which most archaeologists can generally agree, it is the importance of chronology in studying the past. Although one of the most important contributions that archaeology can make is the study of cultures over long time spans, control of the time dimension is crucial in almost all kinds of archaeological research. In studying the archaeological record, the archaeologist needs to differentiate those materials that are contemporary and those that reflect the passage of time. Given the importance of establishing the temporal relationships of archaeological remains, it is not surprising that until the introduction of dating techniques from the physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and nuclear physics), issues of chronology dominated archaeology. Archaeologists can now access a wide variety of techniques to estimate the age of archaeological remains, and can now turn their attention to issues other than chronology.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The dating methods used by archaeologists vary considerably in precision and the nature of the material actually dated. Age determinations for archaeological materials may be direct or indirect. Direct dates are derived from the actual artifact, feature or ecofact to determine the age of the material. Indirect dates are based on material associated with the archaeological item of interest. For example, ash in an ancient hearth can be dated by the radiocarbon dating method (discussed below) and other material, such as pottery, stone tools, and fragments of animal bone associated with the hearth, can then be indirectly assigned the same age. This assignment, however, assumes that there is sufficient evidence indicating that both the hearth and the artifacts reflect the same contemporaneous event, thus allowing the extension of the direct date to the other related material.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>Dates may be relative or absolute in their scale of measurement. Relative dating simply orders remains into a ranked chronological sequence, where the age of each is relative (i.e., earlier than later than, or contemporary) to the others. The preliminary steps in most archaeological research usually employ relative dating methods to order artifacts, features and sites into temporal sequences. Absolute dating provides a specific calendar age estimate (e.g., 1000 years ago), thus allowing determination of the actual amount of time difference between absolute dates. Although absolute dates provide a calendar age, they vary in their precision, as many have an uncertainty factor attached that indicates a range of time rather than a specific date.<p></p></FONT></P>Although dating methods are used to determine the age of objects and events, these dates are ordered to establish a chronology that provides a temporal framework in which the archaeological material can be placed. This chronology-building process is the foundation for archaeological studies. In this chapter, we examine some of the major techniques that have been developed to date the archaeological past and material from the archaeological record.
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:06:41|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal"><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT></B><B normal">黑洞</B><FONT face="Times New Roman"><B normal">”</B><p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑洞<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>很容易让人望文生义地想象成一个<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>大黑窟窿<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,其实不然。所谓<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑洞<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,就是这样一种天体:它的引力场是如此之强,就连光也不能逃脱出来。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  根据广义相对论,引力场将使时空弯曲。当恒星的体积很大时,它的引力场对时空几乎没什幺影响,从恒星表面上某一点发的光可以朝任何方向沿直线射出。而恒星的半径越小,它对周围的时空弯曲作用就越大,朝某些角度发出的光就将沿弯曲空间返回恒星表面。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  等恒星的半径小到一特定值(天文学上叫<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>史瓦西半径<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>)时,就连垂直表面发射的光都被捕获了。到这时,恒星就变成了黑洞。说它<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,是指它就像宇宙中的无底洞,任何物质一旦掉进去,<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>似乎<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>就再不能逃出。实际上黑洞真正是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>隐形<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的,等一会儿我们会讲到。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  那幺,黑洞是怎样形成的呢?其实,跟白矮星和中子星一样,黑洞很可能也是由恒星演化而来的。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  我们曾经比较详细地介绍了白矮星和中子星形成的过程。当一颗恒星衰老时,它的热核反应已经耗尽了中心的燃料(氢),由中心产生的能量已经不多了。这样,它再也没有足够的力量来承担起外壳巨大的重量。所以在外壳的重压之下,核心开始坍缩,直到最后形成体积小、密度大的星体,重新有能力与压力平衡。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  质量小一些的恒星主要演化成白矮星,质量比较大的恒星则有可能形成中子星。而根据科学家的计算,中子星的总质量不能大于三倍太阳的质量。如果超过了这个值,那幺将再没有什幺力能与自身重力相抗衡了,从而引发另一次大坍缩。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  这次,根据科学家的猜想,物质将不可阻挡地向着中心点进军,直至成为一个体积趋于零、密度趋向无限大的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>点<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。而当它的半径一旦收缩到一定程度(史瓦西半径),正象我们上面介绍的那样,巨大的引力就使得即使光也无法向外射出,从而切断了恒星与外界的一切联系<FONT face="Times New Roman">——“</FONT>黑洞<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>诞生了。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  与别的天体相比,黑洞是显得太特殊了。例如,黑洞有<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>隐身术<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,人们无法直接观察到它,连科学家都只能对它内部结构提出各种猜想。那幺,黑洞是怎幺把自己隐藏起来的呢?答案就是<FONT face="Times New Roman">——</FONT>弯曲的空间。我们都知道,光是沿直线传播的。这是一个最基本的常识。可是根据广义相对论,空间会在引力场作用下弯曲。这时候,光虽然仍然沿任意两点间的最短距离传播,但走的已经不是直线,而是曲线。形象地讲,好象光本来是要走直线的,只不过强大的引力把它拉得偏离了原来的方向。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  在地球上,由于引力场作用很小,这种弯曲是微乎其微的。而在黑洞周围,空间的这种变形非常大。这样,即使是被黑洞挡着的恒星发出的光,虽然有一部分会落入黑洞中消失,可另一部分光线会通过弯曲的空间中绕过黑洞而到达地球。所以,我们可以毫不费力地观察到黑洞背面的星空,就像黑洞不存在一样,这就是黑洞的隐身术。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  更有趣的是,有些恒星不仅是朝着地球发出的光能直接到达地球,它朝其它方向发射的光也可能被附近的黑洞的强引力折射而能到达地球。这样我们不仅能看见这颗恒星的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>脸<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,还同时看到它的侧面、甚至后背!<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>  <FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑洞<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>无疑是本世纪最具有挑战性、也最让人激动的天文学说之一。许多科学家正在为揭开它的神秘面纱而辛勤工作着,新的理论也不断地提出。不过,这些当代天体物理学的最新成果不是在这里三言两语能说清楚的。有兴趣的朋友可以去参考专门的论着。</FONT>

<B normal"><FONT size=2>Rainforest Layers<p></p></FONT></B></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>High temperature and rainfall production, more or less uniform throughout the year, characterize the rainforest worldwide. The water that is required to maintain this environment also threatens its existence. If left uncontrolled, the water that constantly bombards the soil would leech out most of the valuable nutrients. Plants and animals in this environment have developed adaptations to deal with the constant deluge and to compete successfully for nutrients. <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>A closer look at the rainforest reveals that it is actually composed of four layers or communities. Each layer has a unique set of environmental conditions and organisms adapted to them. Read the descriptions below and watch for these layers and the infinite variety of life forms that occupy them as you visit La Selva. <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The Emergent Layer<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The tallest trees are the emergents, towering as much as 200 feet (60 m) above the forest floor with trunks that measure up to 16 feet (5 m) around. These huge trunks are usually supported by buttress roots to brace against the high winds. Most of these trees are broad-leaved, hardwood evergreens. They are exposed to greater fluctuations of temperature, wind and rainfall than are their smaller companions. To hold water, leaves often have thick, waxy layers. Emergents may take advantage of the greater air movement above the canopy by developing winged seeds or fruits that are dispersed by wind to other parts of the forest. Sunlight is plentiful and animals such as eagles, m<I normal">onkey</I>s, butterflies, insect-eating bats and snakes inhabit this layer, some never venturing below it.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The Canopy<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The primary layer of the rainforest, the canopy, extends beneath the emergents, rising to 150 feet (45m). Most canopy trees have smooth, oval leaves that come to a point. A possible explanation for this adaptation is that they shed rain quickly, discouraging the growth of lichens and mosses. In cloud forests such as La Selva, the canopy is lower and more dense, formed by smaller trees with twisted crowns of tiny, leathery leaves. At these higher elevations, the leaves have developed a highly reflective property that protects them from the higher levels of intense radiation. This almost solid green shield filters out 80% of the light, preventing its transmission to the forest below.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>Photosynthesis is everywhere. Flowers and fruits abound. Many species flower simultaneously, aiding cross-pollination. In some species, flowers are produced on the trunks, making it easier for bat pollinators to find their way to the flowers. M<I normal">onkey</I>s, sloths, bats, treefrogs, ants, beetles, parrots, hummingbirds and snakes, to mention a few, can be found here, often never touching the ground during their lifetime. Epiphytes, some 28,000 species worldwide, use every tree surface as a place to live. Hollow trunks of trees and pools of water in bromeliads often are micro-communities within the Canopy.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The Understory<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>This area gets only 2-5% of the sunlight available to the canopy. This limited light encourages the plant residents to devise unique ways to survive, such as the solar-collecting dark green leaves. Plants that survive in the understory include dwarf palms and soft-stalked species of families, such as the ginger family, acanthus and prayer plant or Maranta. These plants seldom grow to more than 12 feet (3.5 m) in height. Understory plants have a more difficult time with pollination because of the lack of air movement. Most rely on insects. Some produce strong smelling flowers, others produce flowers and fruit on their trunks. This phenomenon, known as cauliflory, makes them more conspicuous to aid the process of pollination and seed dispersal. Many animals live here, including snakes, frogs, parakeets, leopards or jaguars and the largest concentration of insects.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The <st1:place>Forest</st1:place> Floor<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>Almost no plants grow in this region of 0-2% light and 100% humidity. The few flowering plants that live here tolerate deep shade. The floor itself is covered with a litter of rapidly decomposing vegetation and organisms that break down into usable nutrients. A leaf that might take one year to decompose in a temperate climate, will disappear in just six weeks on the rainforest floor. A high proportion of the nutrients in the system are locked in the large biomass (trees and other plant storage systems). There is heavy competition for these nutrients. This is why many trees are so shallow-rooted. Large mammals, such as tapirs, forage for roots and tubers. Insects, including termites, cockroaches, beetles, centipedes, millipedes, scorpions and earthworms, along with the fungi, use the organic litter as a source of food.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal"><FONT size=2>太阳系的行星</FONT></B>
<FONT size=2>九大行星通常按以下几个方法分类: <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>根据组成:</FONT>
<FONT size=2>  固态的由石头构成的行星:水星,金星,地球和火星:
  固态行星主要由岩石与金属构成,高密度,自转速度慢,固态表面,没有光环,卫星较少。
  较大的气态行星:木星,土星,天王星和海王星:
  气态行星主要由氢和氦构成,密度低,自转速度快,大气层厚,有光环和很多卫星。
  冥王星。
根据大小:
  小行星:水星,金星,地球,火星和冥王星。
  小行星的直径小于13000公里。
  巨行星:木星,土星,天王星和海王星。
  巨行星的直径大于48000公里。
  水星和冥王星有时被称作次行星(lesser planets)(不要与次级行星(minor planets)--小行星的官方命名--相混乱)。
  巨行星有时被称为气态行星。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>根据相对太阳的位置:</FONT>
<FONT size=2>  内层行星:水星,金星,地球和火星。
  外层行星:木星,土星,天王星,海王星和冥王星。
  在火星和木星之间的小行星带组成了区别内层行星和外层行星的标志。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>根据相对地球的位置:</FONT>
<FONT size=2>  地内行星:水星和金星。
  离太阳与地球较近。
  地内行星看起来的如同地球上看有时不完整的月亮。
  地球。
  地外行星:火星到冥王星。
  离太阳与地球较远。
  地外行星看起来通常是完整的,或近乎完整的。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>根据历史:</FONT>
<FONT size=2>  古典行星:水星,金星,火星,木星和土星。
  史前即以得知
  可用肉眼观测
  现代行星:天王星,海王星,冥王星。
  近现代所发现
  用望远镜观测
  地球 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>未知点:</FONT>
<FONT size=2>  太阳系是怎样起源的?一般来说是由尘粒与气体的星云压缩形成的,但详情很不清楚。
  行星系统如何与其它星系共处?已有了木星般大小的在附近轨道运动的对象的恒星的极好的证据。组成固态行星的条件是什幺?看起来地球这样的星体并不是独一无二的,但目前还没有直接证据证明这个或其它。

Glaciers exist where, over a period of years, snow remains after summer's end. They exist in environments of high and low precipitation and in many temperature regimes; they are found on all the continents except </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:country-region><st1:place>Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> and they span the globe from high altitudes in equatorial regions to the polar ice caps. There is a delicate balance between climatic factors that allows snow to remain beyond its season. ... <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>Scientists and skiers alike can note that within a few days of falling, snowflakes have noticeably begun to change. ... The snowflakes are compressed under the weight of the overlying snowpack. Individual crystal near the melting point have slick liquid edges allowing them to glide along other crystal planes and to readjust the space between them. Where the crystals touch they bond together, squeezing the air between them to the surface or into bubbles. During summer we might see the crystal metamorphosis occur more rapidly because of water percolation between the crystals. By summer's end the result is firn -- a compacted snow with the appearance of wet sugar, but with a hardness that makes it resistant to all but the most dedicated snow shovelers! Several years are usually required for the snow to settle and to season into the substance we call glacier ice. ... <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>We can best determine the health of a glacier by looking at its mass balance. Each year glaciers yield either a net profit of new snow, a net loss of snow and ice, or their mass may remain in equilibrium. Scientists divide each glacier into upper and lower sections termed the accumulation area, where snowfall exceeds melting during a year; and the ablation area, where melting exceeds snowfall. An equilibrium line, where mass accumulation equals mass loss, separates these areas. You can see it as the boundary between the winter's snow and the older snow or ice surface. Its altitude changes annually with the glacier's mass balance. To find mass balance, scientists measure the area of each region and observe amounts of accumulation and ablation relative to preset stakes. After density measurements are made they may calculate how much water has been added or lost to the glacier. ... <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>After a series of positive mass balance years, the glacier may respond to the increased thickness by making a glacial advance downvalley. A series of negative years may cause a glacial retreat, meaning that the terminus is melting faster than the ice is moving downvalley. ... <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>Glaciers have been likened to mighty rivers of ice. Although they move many times more slowly, glaciers have equivalent changes in flow rate and often form falls of fast-moving ice above slow-moving ice pools. Glaciers flow faster down their centers than at ice margins, and more quickly at the surface than at the bed. ... <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>How fast a glacier moves is mostly dependent on the thickness of the ice, and on the angle of its surface slope. Glacier speeds vary when changes are made in this geometry. They respond to excessively high seasonal snow accumulations by generating bulges of thicker ice that may move downvalley many times faster than the glacier's normal velocity. ... <p></p></FONT></P>
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:10:44|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>阅读背景知识</B><B normal?>

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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>美国和加拿大阅读背景材料</FONT></B><FONT size=2> - IDB Internet Explorer <BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>关于美国的历史
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>The continent's first inhabitants walked into <st1:place>North America</st1:place> across what is now the <st1:place>Bering Strait</st1:place> from <st1:place>Asia</st1:place>. For the next 20,000 years these pioneering settlers were essentially left alone to develop distinct and dynamic cultures. In the modern US, their descendants include the Pueblo people in what is now New Mexico; Apache in Texas; Navajo in Arizona, Colorado and Utah; Hopi in Arizona; Crow in Montana; Cherokee in North Carolina; and Mohawk and Iroquois in New York State. The Norwegian explorer Leif Eriksson was the first European to reach <st1:place>North America</st1:place>, some 500 years before a disoriented <st1:City><st1:place>Columbus</st1:place></st1:City> accidentally discovered 'Indians' in <st1:place>Hispaniola</st1:place> (now the <st1:country-region><st1:place>Dominican Republic</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Haiti</st1:place></st1:country-region>) in 1492. By the mid-1550s, much of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>Americas</st1:place></st1:country-region> had been poked and prodded by a parade of explorers from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>England</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The first colonies attracted immigrants looking to get rich quickly and return home, but they were soon followed by migrants whose primary goal was to colonize. The Spanish founded the first permanent European settlement in <st1:place><st1:City>St Augustine</st1:City>, <st1:State>Florida</st1:State></st1:place>, in 1565; the French moved in on <st1:State><st1:place>Maine</st1:place></st1:State> in 1602, and <st1:place><st1:City>Jamestown</st1:City>, <st1:State>Virginia</st1:State></st1:place>, became the first British settlement in 1607. The first Africans arrived as 'indentured laborers' with the Brits a year prior to English Puritan pilgrims' escape of religious persecution. The pilgrims founded a colony at Plymouth Rock, <st1:State><st1:place>Massachusetts</st1:place></st1:State>, in 1620 and signed the famous Mayflower Compact - a declaration of self-government that would later be echoed in the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution. British attempts to assert authority in its 13 North American colonies led to the French and Indian War (1757-63). The British were victorious but were left with a nasty war debt, which they tried to recoup by imposing new taxes. The rallying cry 'no taxation without representation' united the colonies, who ceremoniously dumped caffeinated cargo overboard during the Boston Tea Party. Besieged British general Cornwallis surrendered to American commander George Washington five years later at <st1:place><st1:City>Yorktown</st1:City>, <st1:State>Virginia</st1:State></st1:place>, in 1781. In the 19th century, <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s mantra was 'Manifest Destiny.' A combination of land purchases, diplomacy and outright wars of conquest had by 1850 given the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> roughly its present shape. In 1803, Napoleon dumped the entire <st1:place>Great Plains</st1:place> for a pittance, and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> chipped in with <st1:State><st1:place>Florida</st1:place></st1:State> in 1819. The <st1:City><st1:place>Battle</st1:place></st1:City> of the <st1:place>Alamo</st1:place> during the 1835 Texan Revolution paved the way for Texan independence from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and the war with <st1:country-region><st1:place>Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> (1846-48) secured most of the southwest, including <st1:State><st1:place>California</st1:place></st1:State>. The systematic annihilation of the buffalo hunted by the Plains Indians, encroachment on their lands, and treaties not worth the paper they were written on led to Native Americans being herded into reservations, deprived of both their livelihoods and their spiritual connection to their land. Nineteenth-century immigration drastically altered the cultural landscape as settlers of predominantly British stock were joined by Central Europeans and Chinese, many attracted by the 1849 gold rush in <st1:State><st1:place>California</st1:place></st1:State>. The South remained firmly committed to an agrarian life heavily reliant on African American slave labor. Tensions were on the rise when abolitionist Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860. The South seceded from the <st1:place>Union</st1:place>, and the Civil War, by far the bloodiest war in <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s history, began the following year. The North prevailed in 1865, freed the slaves and introduced universal adult male suffrage. <st1:City><st1:place>Lincoln</st1:place></st1:City>'s vision for reconstruction, however, died with his assassination. <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s trouncing of the Spaniards in 1898 marked the <st1:country-region><st1:place>USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s ascendancy as a superpower and woke the country out of its isolationist slumber. The <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> still did its best not to get its feet dirty in WWI's trenches, but finally capitulated in 1917, sending over a million troops to help sort out the pesky Germans. Postwar celebrations were cut short by Prohibition in 1920, which banned alcohol in the country. The 1929 stock-market crash signaled the start of the Great Depression and eventually brought about Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal, which sought to lift the country back to prosperity. After the Japanese dropped in uninvited on <st1:place>Pearl Harbor</st1:place> in 1941, the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> played a major role in defeating the Axis powers. Atomic bombs dropped on <st1:City><st1:place>Hiroshima</st1:place></st1:City> and <st1:City><st1:place>Nagasaki</st1:place></st1:City> in 1945 not only ended the war with <st1:country-region><st1:place>Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but ushered in the nuclear age. The end of WWII segued into the Cold War - a period of great domestic prosperity and a surface uniformity belied by paranoia and betrayal. Politicians like Senator Joe McCarthy took advantage of the climate to fan anticommunist flames, while the <st1:country-region><st1:place>USSR</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> stockpiled nuclear weapons and fought wars by proxy in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Korea</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:place>Africa</st1:place> and <st1:place>Southeast Asia</st1:place>. Tensions between the two countries reached their peak in 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The 1960s was a decade of profound social change, thanks largely to the Civil Rights movement, Vietnam War protests and the discovery of sex, drugs and rock &amp; roll. The Civil Rights movement gained momentum in 1955 with a bus boycott in <st1:place><st1:City>Montgomery</st1:City>, <st1:State>Alabama</st1:State></st1:place>. As a nonviolent mass protest movement, it aimed at breaking down segregation and regaining the vote for disfranchised Southern blacks. The movement peaked in 1963 with Martin Luther King Jr's 'I have a dream speech' in Washington, DC, and the passage of the landmark 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act. Meanwhile, <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s youth were rejecting the conformity of the previous decade, growing their hair long and smoking lots of dope. 'Tune in, turn on, drop out' was the mantra of a generation who protested heavily (and not disinterestedly) against the war in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Vietnam</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Assassinations of prominent political leaders - John and Robert Kennedy, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr - took a little gloss off the party, and the American troops mired in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Vietnam</st1:place></st1:country-region> took off the rest. NASA's moon landing in 1969 did little to restore national pride. In 1974 Richard Nixon became the first <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> president to resign from office, due to his involvement in the cover-up of the Watergate burglaries, bringing American patriotism to a new low. The 1970s and '80s were a period of technological advancement and declining industrialism. Self image took a battering at the hands of Iranian Ayatollah Khomeni. A conservative backlash, symbolized by the election and popular two-term presidency of actor Ronald Reagan, sought to put some backbone in the country. The <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> then concentrated on bullying its poor neighbors in <st1:place>Central America</st1:place> and the <st1:place>Caribbean</st1:place>, meddling in the affairs of <st1:country-region><st1:place>El Salvador</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Nicaragua</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Grenada</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The collapse of the Soviet Bloc's 'Evil Empire' in 1991 left the US as the world's sole superpower, and the Gulf War in 1992 gave George Bush the opportunity to lead a coalition supposedly representing a 'new world order' into battle against Iraq. Domestic matters, such as health reform, gun ownership, drugs, racial tension, gay rights, balancing the budget, the tenacious Whitewater scandal and the Monica Lewinsky 'Fornigate' affair tended to overshadow international concerns during the <st1:City><st1:place>Clinton</st1:place></st1:City> administration. In a bid to kickstart its then-ailing economy, the USA signed NAFTA, a free-trade agreement with Canada and Mexico, in 1993, invaded Haiti in its role of upholder of democracy in 1994, committed thousands of troops to peacekeeping operations in Bosnia in 1995, hosted the Olympics in 1996 and enjoyed, over the past few years, the fruits of a bull market on Wall St. The 2000 presidential election made history by being the most highly contested race in the nation's history. The Democratic candidate, Al Gore, secured the majority of the popular vote but lost the election when all of Florida's electoral college votes went to George W Bush, who was ahead of Gore in that state by only 500 votes. Demands for recounts, a ruling by the Florida Supreme Court in favor of partial recounts, and a handful of lawsuits generated by both parties were brought to a halt when the US Supreme Court split along party lines and ruled that all recounts should cease. After five tumultuous weeks, Bush was declared the winner. The early part of Bush's presidency saw the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> face international tension, with renewed violence in the <st1:place>Middle East</st1:place>, a spy-plane standoff with <st1:country-region><st1:place>China</st1:place></st1:country-region> and nearly global disapproval of <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> foreign policy with regard to the environment. On the domestic front, a considerably weakened economy provided challenges for national policymakers. Whether the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> can continue to hold onto its dominant position on the world stage and rejuvenate its economy remains to be seen.
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>美国历史</FONT></B><FONT size=2>英属北美殖民地的建立(1607--1733)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>北美洲原始居民为印第安人。16-18世纪,正在进行资本原始积累的西欧各国相继入侵北美洲。法国人建立了新法兰西(包括圣劳伦斯流域下游大潮区,密西西比河流域等处);西班牙人建立了新西班牙(包括墨西哥和美国西南部的广大地区)。1607年,英国建立了第1个殖民据点<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>詹姆士城,此后在大西洋沿岸陆续建立了13个殖民地。到达殖民地的大多数是西欧贫苦的劳动人民,也有贵族、地主、资产阶级,以英国人、爱尔兰人、德意志人和荷兰人最多。移民中有逃避战祸和宗教迫害者,有自愿和非自愿的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>契约奴<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>以及乞丐、罪犯;还有从非洲被贩运来的黑人。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>五月花<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>号 (Mayflower)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>=========================
独立战争 (1774</FONT><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>—</FONT><FONT size=2>1783)
英法为争夺海上霸权和掠夺殖民地而进行的七年战争,以英国胜利告终。英国在北美接管了加拿大,控制了密西西比河以东的新法兰西,对北美殖民地全面加强控制,宣告阿巴拉契亚山脉以西为王室产业,禁止殖民地人民染指;并征收重税,严厉缉私,限制经济活动,严重损害了殖民地各阶层人民的经济利益。从1619年弗吉尼亚建立议会起,各殖民地相继成立议会,与英国相抗衡,1765年9个殖民地举行抗议印花税大会,掀起反抗怒潮。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>18世纪70年代英国进一步执行高压政策,1770年波士顿惨案发生。1773年通过了茶税法,引起波士顿倾茶事件。1774年颁布了5项不可容忍的法令(诸如封闭波士顿港,增派英国驻军,取消马萨诸塞自治权,确立英国对殖民地的司法权等),从政治上军事上加紧对殖民地的控制与镇压。1772-1774年,各殖民地普遍成立通讯委员会,领导抗英斗争。1774年9月5日,除佐治亚外的各殖民地代表在费城召开了第1届大陆会议,通过了和英国断绝一切贸易关系的决议,继而通过<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>关于殖民地权利和怨恨的宣言<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,向英王呈递请愿书。1775年4月18日,在波士顿附近的列克星敦和康科德,殖民地爱国者打响了反抗的枪声,揭开了独立战争的序幕。5月,第2届大陆会议召开。次年7月大陆会议通过独立宣言,宣布13个殖民地脱离英国独立。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>独立战争开始时,双方实力悬殊,战争进行了8年。到1781年10月,美、法联军攻下英军最后据点约克镇,独立战争基本结束。1783年英美签订巴黎和约。独立战争时期涌现出一批杰出的政治家,如大陆军的总司令G.华盛顿、《独立宣言》的起草人T.杰斐逊、外交家B.富兰克林、文化战士T.潘恩。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>印花税条例 (Stamp Act)
波士顿惨案 (Boston Massacre)
大陆会议 (Continental Congress)
独立战争 (War of lndependence)
独立宣言 (Declaration of Independence)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>====================================
独立的民族主权国家的建成(1781-1814)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>在战争过程中,大陆会议制订了邦联条例,1781-1787年13州组成了邦联国会,宣布成立美利坚共和国。1787年,在费城召开制宪会议,大州和小州的代表经过争论,同意每州均选出两名参议员;在蓄奴制问题上,北部对南部作出了重大妥协,默认奴隶制存在,在征税及分配众议员席位方面,南部黑奴均以3/5的人口计算。会议最后制定了宪法草案。这是世界上第1部成文宪法。1788年6月由9个州批准生效。根据宪法,美国建成立法、行政、司法三权分立、相互制衡的联邦制国家。后又增加了宪法前10条修正案(后即以<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>权利法案<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>著称)。该法案于1791年12月,经11个州批准生效。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1789年联邦政府成立。4月,华盛顿就任美国首届总统(1792年连任)。在国内外政策出现分歧的过程中,财政部长A.汉密尔顿派组织了联邦党,主张中央集权,外交上亲英,控制了联邦政府的权力。国务卿T.杰斐逊派主张维护国内人民民主权利,同情法国革命,组织了民主共和党。1793年华盛顿在欧洲列强联合干涉法国革命时,采取中立政策。次年11月,联邦政府和英国签订了损害美国主权的杰伊条约。亲英和亲法成为联邦党和民主共和党在外交政策上的分野。在内政方面,联邦政府制定关税条例,建立银行,稳定经济。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1801年,民主共和党T.杰斐逊出任总统。杰斐逊政府废除上述4项法令,削减开支,减轻税收,取消酒税,鼓励农产品出口。1803年从法国手中购买了面积达200多万平方公里的路易斯安那。英国一直不甘心丧失北美殖民地。英舰在公海上继续拦截美国船只,强制征用美国海员。为维护航海自由,1812<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>1814年美国进行了第2次对英战争。除海战外,优势在英军方面。1814年8月,英军曾攻占华盛顿首府,焚烧总统府及会。但随后美国取得胜利。1814年12月,英美在今比利时的根特签订和约。这次战争使美国得以摆脱英国政治上的控制和经济上的渗透,成为一个完全独立的民族主权国家。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>美英巴黎条约 (Treaty of Parise,1783)
美英战争 (1812)(War of l812)
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南北战争前南北经济的不同发展(1814<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>1861)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>19世纪上半叶,美国领土逐渐由大西洋沿岸扩张到太平洋沿岸。经济发生了显著变化,北部、南部经济沿着不同方向发展。北部发展海上贸易,扩大航运业。进行大量的资本原始积累。早在1790年就在罗得岛建立了第l座棉纺厂。此后,陆续出现其他工厂。从19世纪初期起,大量资金投放于工商业,工业生产得到发展。在大力引进西欧科学技术的同时,鼓励创造和发明。50年代,工业化迅速推进。1860年,美国工业生产居世界第4位。2/3的制造品由东北部生产。西欧移民大批涌入,并向西迁移,为发展经济提供了自由雇佣劳动力。但在南部,以奴隶劳动为基础的棉花种植园经济不断扩大,由大西洋沿岸各州扩展到得克萨斯境内。在西部新开辟的地区,是推广自由劳动制还是奴隶制,南部和北部的代言人争执不休,成为全国政治斗争的主题。1820年北部对南部作出让步,达成《密苏里妥协案》,双方争执暂时乎息。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>西进运动</FONT><FONT size=2> (Westwood Movement)
密苏里妥协案 (Missouri Compromise)
南北战争前的外交和政治 (1814<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>1861)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1823年,美国总统J.门罗发表了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>门罗宣言<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。反对欧洲列强干涉西半球事务。1846-1848年,美国发动对墨西哥战争,把得克萨斯、新墨西哥和加利福尼亚并入美国领土。1814年美英战争即将结束时,联邦党召集哈特福德会议,图谋分裂联邦,但遭失败,因而瓦解。联邦党的衰落标志着商业资本开始向工业资本过渡。1816-1824年,美国进入民主共和党一党执政时期,它代表北部资产阶级和南部奴隶主的共同利益,习称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>和谐时期<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。以后民主共和党分裂,政治力量重新组合。1828年,成立了民主党,推选A.杰克逊为总统候选人,杰克逊当选并连任总统至1837年3月。1834年辉格党成立。杰克逊政府将印第安人迁至密西西比河以西,并制止了南卡罗来纳州借口高关税法而掀起的分裂危机。政府废除了贫民因负债而受监禁的法令,普及了白人男子的普选权,并进行了一些民主改革,习称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>杰克逊民主<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。1828-1856年,民主党和辉格党成为对峙的两大政党。除1840年和1848年两届总统竞选由辉格党获胜外,其余各届总统竞选均由民主党获胜。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>随着南部和北部两种不同社会经济制度斗争的激化和黑奴反抗的不断掀起,群众性的反奴运动广泛开展。1840年,主张废奴运动的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>自由党<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>成立。1848年,废奴主义者,民主党和辉格党内反对奴隶制的人组织了自由土壤党,以在西部地域建立自由州为宗旨。1850年,双方经过争执,达成妥协,国会通过严峻的逃奴追缉法。1854年国会通过堪萨斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>内布拉斯加法案,取消了奴隶州和自由州的地理疆界线,也就使密苏里妥协案随之废除,遭到北部工业资产阶级的强烈反对。1854年成立了共和党,以反对奴隶制为宗旨。1856年。民主党J.布坎南当选总统,此时实际上民主党已成为代表奴隶主利益的政党。1857年最高法院作出斯科特判决案,其法律涵意是使奴隶制的规模推向全国。1859年J.布朗领导的反奴隶制的武装起义被镇压。1860年总统选举中,共和党候选人A.林肯获胜。蓄谋叛乱已久的南部奴隶主集团决定脱离联邦,并于1861年2月另行成立宣布维护奴隶制的南部同盟。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>门罗主义</FONT><FONT size=2> (Monron Doctrine)
废奴运动 (Abolition Movement)
堪萨斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>内布拉斯加法案</FONT><FONT size=2> (Kansas-Nebraska Act)
约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>布朗起义</FONT><FONT size=2> (John Brown's Rebellion)
 
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>南北战争及重建时期(1861-1877)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1861年4月,南部同盟不宣而战,占领萨姆特炮台,南北战争爆发。次年5月,林肯颁布《宅地法》,允许耕种西部土地5年的农民,在缴纳10美元证件费后获得160英亩土地的使用权,使在西部垦殖的广大农民,站在废奴派一边,孤立了南部同盟。1863年1月1日,林肯颁布的《解放宣言》生效,叛乱各州的黑人奴隶都被视为自由人,允许参军,短期内即有18.6万名黑人参加联邦军队。1864年联邦军队占领佐治亚的亚特兰大,将南部同盟截成两段,取得了决定的胜利。1865年4月9日,南部同盟军总司令R.E.李将军投降。南北战争以联邦胜利宣告结束。4月14日;林肯遇刺,副总统A.约翰逊继任总统。约翰逊对南部种植园主推行妥协政策。11月,密西西比州首先颁布<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑人法典<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,对黑人残酷迫害。恐怖组织三K党于1866年成立,对刚获得自由的黑人施以私刑。在这种混乱局面下,共和党激进派占优势的国会提出弹劾总统案(以少1票未通过),并分别于1865、1868和1870年通过了宪法第13条修正案(宣布在美国奴隶制不复存在)、第14条修正案(黑人被承认为美国公民)、第15条修正案(给黑人以选举权)。1867年3月,国会通过重新建设南部法案,对南部实行军管。1867-1877年,南部进行民主重建,各州成立了黑人和白人联合执政的政权,制订了民主的进步法令,14名黑人当选为众议员,两名黑人当选为参议员。R.B.海斯就任总统,标志着民主重建的结束。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>南北战争 (CivilWar)
宅地法 (Homestead Act)
解放宣言 (Emancipation Proclamation)
重建时期 (Reconstruction)
 
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>19世纪后半叶经济迅速发展 (1877<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>1900)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>南北战争后,由于南部种植园制度的废除,为资本主义在全国范围的发展创造了条件;造船业和机器制造业迅速发展,横贯大陆的4条铁路建成,西部广大土地的垦殖,边疆的消失,促进了国内统一市场的形成和扩大。在中西部、远西部和南部日益开拓进程中,各地区发展了具有本地特点的工业。外国移民的大量涌入,提供了丰富的劳动力,使北美能够大规模进行农业生产。19世纪后半叶农业机械化迅速发展。从1860-1916年,耕地面积由4.07亿英亩增加到8.79亿英亩,改良的土地面积扩大了3倍多,小麦和玉米的产量约增加了3倍多。农业中大生产排挤和兼并小生产,在以工业为主的北部,农业日益采用集约耕作,在其他地区,大农场数字逐渐增加,1900年美国农产品总数的一半是由1/6的大农户生产的,形成了美国式农业资本主义发展道路。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>19世纪后半叶,科学技术领域有重要发明和突破,其中首推电力的应用;1876年A.G:贝尔发明电话机,1886年T.A.爱迪生制造了电灯,1892年杜里雅兄弟试制成功汽车,1903年莱特兄弟试制飞机航行成功。电力广泛应用于工业,导致美国经济的全面发展。1880年工业在全国生产总值中的比重已超过农业,工业生产总值由1860年的世界第4位,跃居至1894年的首位。美国成为高度发达的资本主义国家。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>===================
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>第一次世界大战前的内外政策(1889<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>1914)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1889年美国召开泛美会议,1898年美西战争爆发,美国击败了西班牙,夺取了加勒比海的古巴和波多黎各、太平洋的关岛及菲律宾群岛,接着合并了夏威夷群岛。1903年美国夺取了巴拿马运河区。在远东,1899年美国提出对华<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>门户开放<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>政策。美国在1904-1905年日俄战争中支持日本。在日俄战争结束后,美日双方经过谈判,于1908年签订了罗脱<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>高平协定。在1912年总统选举中,民主党总统候选人T.W.威尔逊上台。威尔逊以<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新自由<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>作为号召进行改革,降低关税,建立联邦储备银行制度,通过克莱顿反托拉斯法(1914),征收累进所得税。该时期美国在对外政策上,对西半球墨西哥、尼加拉瓜等国进行了武装干涉。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>===================
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>第一次世界大战至20世纪20年代末的美国
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>第一次世界大战开始后,美国宣布中立,向交战双方提供军火,不久又对协约国进行贷款。1916年,威尔逊当选连任。1917年,美国在德国潜艇击沉美国船只后,于4月6日对德宣战。大战期间由于国外移民中断,黑人大量北移,并人伍出国作战,开拓了视野。1918年11月,威尔逊签署对德停战协定。第一次世界大战促进了美国的经济繁荣。战后,美国由欠60亿美元的债务国而成为贷出100亿美元的债权国,美国成为最富有的国家。1921年共和党W.G.哈定执政,正值美国陷入全面经济萧条。他提出<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>工业正常化<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>和<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>抢救资本主义<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>政策;1923-1929年世界资本主义进人相对稳定时期。美国国内由于固定资本更新,建筑业兴起,汽车和钢铁工业等扩大以及商品和资本输出激增,1923年美国工商业出现了新高涨。与此同时,美国第2次企业<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>合并浪潮<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>(即进一步托拉斯化),遍及银行业、工业部门,特别是水、电、煤气公用事业,甚至扩展到零售商业部门。共和党人C,柯立芝执政时期是美国经济繁荣时期。私人垄断资本大为发展。但由于国内新兴工业畸形发展与生产过剩,使国民经济各部门比例严重失调,生产和消费脱节,农业长期陷于慢性危机,1929年10月美国首先爆发经济危机,随后资本主义各国陆续陷入1929-1933年世界性经济危机。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>大萧条 (Great Depression)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>20世纪30年代的美国
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>民主党人F.D.罗斯福1933年就任第32届总统。罗斯福政府实行了由国家对经济进行广泛干预、调节的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新政<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,整顿金融,复兴工农业,举办救济事业等,挽救了美国的严重经济危机,并加强了国家垄断资本主义。1933年11月,美国与苏联建交,对拉丁美洲采取<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>睦邻政策<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。1937年新的经济危机再度出现。次年,罗斯福采用扩大赤字开支的办法,使这次危机有所缓解;第二次世界大战爆发后,美国重振军备,才使经济得到恢复,走向繁荣。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>新政 (</FONT><FONT size=2>New Deal)
睦邻政策 (Good Neighbor Policy)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>第二次世界大战期间的美国
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1939年9月德国进攻波兰,第二次世界大战全面爆发。罗斯福于1941年3月签署《租借法》,向与德意日作战的国家提供物资。8月14日,罗斯福与英国首相丘吉尔发表《大西洋宪章》,9月24日苏联政府声明同意其基本原则,接着召开莫斯科三国会议,奠定了美英苏战时合作的基础。12月7日,日本偷袭珍珠港,重创美国太平洋舰队。次日,美英对日宣战。英美在开始时接连败退。1942年5月,美军在中途岛海战中击退日军。同年底至次年初,美国在瓜达尔卡纳尔岛战役中击败日军,美军由守势转为攻势,太平洋战争出现转折。 l942年1月1日,美、英、苏、中等26个国家签署《联合国家宣言》。8月英美联军在北非登陆。1943年2月斯大林格勒战役的胜利,使欧洲反法西斯战争的局势发生根本性变化。同年7月,美英军队在西西里岛登陆。9月在意大利南部登陆。10月意大利投降。1943年 11月,罗斯福、丘吉尔、斯大林举行德黑兰会议。1944年6月,英美等国的联军在法国诺曼底登陆,开辟了欧洲第二战场。4月12日,罗斯福逝世,H.S.杜鲁门继任总统。5月,德国宣布无条件投降。7月,美英苏三国首脑举行波茨坦会议,美英就处理德国、波兰等问题与苏联达成协议。美英中发表了波茨坦公告,要求日本无条件投降。美苏就苏军对日作战取得了一致意见。8月6日,美军在广岛投下策1颗原子弹;8月8日苏联宣布对日作战,9日美军又在长崎投下第2颗原子弹,日本投降,第二次世界大战结束。杜鲁门任命D.麦克阿瑟为盟国驻日最高统帅,美军进驻日本,实现了由美国独家控制日本的局面。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>大西洋宪章</FONT><FONT size=2> (Atlantic Charter)
开罗会议 (Cairo Conference)
德黑兰会议 (Teheran Conference)
雅尔塔会议 (Yalta Conference)
波茨坦会议 (Potsdame Conferenc)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>=================
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>第二次世界大战后的美国
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>第二次世界大战中,由于扩军参战,并大量供应盟国军火物资,美国成为盟国的兵工厂,出现了战时经济繁荣,国家垄断资本有更大发展。美国利用参战的机会,控制了世界许多重要战略据点,建立了军事基地;杜鲁门政府对外推行冷战政策,提出杜鲁门主义,制订马歇尔计划,筹划成立了北大西洋公约组织。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>在内政方面,杜鲁门提出<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>公平施政<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>纲领,但收效甚微。1950年6月,朝鲜战争爆发。1952年共和党人D.D.艾森豪威尔以结束朝鲜战争的许诺当选为美国总统。1953年7月签定了朝鲜停战协定。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>艾森豪威尔政府在1953-1954年经济危机的侵袭下,为缓和国内外紧张形势,在内政外交方面作了调整,扩大了社会保险法的实施范围,加强科研工作的国家化,进一步发展宇航事业。1955年7月美、英、法、苏四国首脑会议召开,国际形势有所缓和。1957年苏联成功地发射第1颗人造地球卫星,向美国尖端科学领先地位进行挑战。1958年,美国发射人造地球卫星,从而使美苏军备竞赛进入宇宙空间竞争。1969年7月20日,美国宇宙飞船<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>阿波罗<FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>11<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>号登月舱在月球着陆。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>在第二次世界大战及朝鲜战争期间,由于有黑人参加作战,军队中取消了种族隔离制度,这一事实推动了国内黑人争取民权的斗争。1954年最高法院作出<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>布朗控诉教育局判决案<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,宣布长期统治教育领域的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>隔离但平等<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>原则为违宪。1955年12月,亚拉巴马州蒙哥马利市的黑人在M.L.金的领导下,进行长达381天的抵制乘车方面种族隔离的运动,黑人又在餐馆展开静坐运动,以抗议这方面的种族隔离,民权运动蓬勃兴起。60年代民主党J.F.肯尼迪和L.B.约翰逊相继执政,实行长期财政赤字政策,扩大军费开支,增加福利费用,经济持续上升。同时,由于他们卷入越南战争,支付巨额军费,消耗了美国大量财富,使美国经济实力大为削弱,而联邦德国和日本经济迅速发展,逐渐成为美国的竞争对手。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>60年代,由于越南战争不得人心,国内社会动荡不宁。1961年黑人和白人公民共同展开<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>自由乘客<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>运动,1963年4月,小马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>路德<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>金在伯明翰发动了大规模游行、请愿、静坐和示威运动,8月,25万黑人和白人一起为抗议种族歧视,举行了向华盛顿的进军示威,小马丁 路德<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>金发表了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>我有一个梦<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的演说。在黑人民权运动的推动下,国会于1964年6月通过民权法。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1969年R.M.尼克松上台后,美国陷入越战泥淖不能自拔,经常性的财政赤字和庞大的军费开支,加剧了通货膨胀,处于内外交困境地。1969年起,尼克松以<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>伙伴关系、实力加谈判<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>作为美国对外政策的新战略。1972年尼克松总统访华,发表了中美上海公报。1974年8月9日,尼克松因水门事件被迫辞职,副总统G.R.福特即就任第38届总统。1975年5月,正式宣布越南战争结束。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1979年1月1日中美建交公报生效,实现了两国关系正常化。在美苏关系方面,尼克松提出新<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>和平<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>战略后,两国加强了对话。1972年5月,尼克松访苏,签署了限制战略武器条约。80年代,美苏军备竞赛从数量方面转向质量方面。1985年以来,美苏经过不断谈判,终于在1988年6月1日,两国领导人在莫斯科交换了中程导弹条约的批准书。美苏关系进一步趋向缓和。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1986年11月,美国爆发了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>伊朗门<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>事件,披露里根政府(成员)绕过国务院并隐瞒国会,于1985年至1986年秘密向伊朗出售武器,以换取美国人质,并将其中所得款项,转移给尼加拉瓜反政府武装。1987年,美国以保护海湾通航的名义,派遣军事力量去海湾,同伊朗多次发生军事冲突。1989年1月布什就任美国第41届总统。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1990年爆发海湾战争。美国出兵伊拉克。迫使其退出科威特。1992年,民主党人克林顿当选总统。其间美国及多国部队多次空袭伊拉克以制止其研制核武器。90年代末,在美国领导下,北约东扩。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>1999年初,美国领导北约向南联盟发动空中打击。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>在经济方面,1973年<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>能源危机<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>后,1974-1975年美国爆发了战后最严重的经济危机;美国经济陷于以<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>滞胀<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>为特征的综合并发症中;1980年美国经济严重衰退。1981年里根任总统后,推行高赤字财政政策,用大规模减税和增加国防开支来刺激经济、鼓励投资,同时严格控制货币发行量。1982年美国经济开始复苏,转入低速增长。1987年10月虽发生股市暴跌风潮,美国经济情况仍较平稳,但财政赤字和外贸赤字仍是美国经济的隐忧。进入90年代,美国计算机产业发展迅速,并带动全球的高科技信息产业,开拓了新一代的产业革命!
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>杜鲁门主义</FONT><FONT size=2> (Truman Doctrine)
马歇尔计划 (Marshall Plan)
共同安全法 (Mutual Security Acts)
古巴导弹危机 (Cuban Missile Crisis)
尼克松主义 (Nixon Doctrine)
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>The American Revolution
</B><FONT size=2>The War of Revolution between <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> began in April 1775 in *<st1:place><st1:City>Lexington</st1:City>, <st1:State>Massachusetts</st1:State></st1:place>, when soldiers from each side met and somebody fired a shot. It was called the 'shot heard round the world' because the war that followed changed the future of the *<st1:place>British Empire</st1:place> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>. But the American Revolution, the movement to make an independent nation, began many years earlier.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>The causes of revolution</FONT></B><FONT size=2>The desire of Americans to be independent from </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> arose out of a long series of disagreements about money and political control. <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> had had colonies (= places taken over by people from a foreign country) in <st1:place>North America</st1:place> since 1607 and kept soldiers there to defend them from attack by the French and Spanish, and by *Native Americans. In order to raise money for this, the British *Parliament tried to make the colonists (= people who had gone to settle in <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>) pay taxes.
From 1651, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> passed a series of laws called Navigation Acts, which said that the colonists should trade only with <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>. These laws were frequently broken and were a continuing source of tension. Taxes imposed in the 18th century increased ill feeling towards <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In 1764 the Sugar Act made colonists pay tax on sugar, and in 1765 the *Stamp Act put a tax on newspapers and official documents. Opposition to this was strong and the following year Parliament had to remove the tax. By then, people in both <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> were arguing about who had the power to tax the colonies. The 13 colonies each had an assembly of elected representatives, and the colonists wanted these assemblies to decide what taxes they should pay, not Parliament. Some colonists, called patriots, began to want independence from <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>. They expressed their feelings in the slogan 'no taxation without representation'.
In 1767 there was a disagreement in <st1:State><st1:place>New York</st1:place></st1:State> about whether <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> could ask people to give soldiers accommodation in their houses. The local assembly agreed, eventually, but became involved in a dispute with Parliament over who had the right to decide such matters. In the same year the Townshend Acts put taxes on certain products including tea. The assemblies refused to help collect the money and Parliament responded by closing them down. All this caused many more people to want independence. *<st1:City><st1:place>Boston</st1:place></st1:City>, especially, had many patriots, including those who called themselves the *Sons of Liberty. On <st1:date Month="3" Day="5" Year="1770">5 March 1770</st1:date> there was a riot in <st1:City><st1:place>Boston</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2> and British soldiers killed five people. This incident became known as the *Boston Massacre.
The Tea Act gave a British company the right to sell tea to the colonists and actually lowered the price for legally imported tea. But most colonists bought cheaper tea that had been smuggled into the country. On <st1:date Month="12" Day="16" Year="1773">16 December 1773</st1:date>, when ships arrived in <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Boston</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Harbour</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> carrying the tea, a group of patriots dressed up as Native Americans went onto the ships and threw the tea into the water. After the *Boston Tea Party, as the event was later called, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> passed the Intolerable Acts, laws to increase her control over the colonies.
As more Americans began to support revolution, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> sent yet more soldiers. On 5 September 1774 representatives of all the colonies except *<st1:country-region><st1:place>Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region> met in *<st1:City><st1:place>Philadelphia</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2>, calling themselves the *Continental Congress. The Congress decided that the colonies needed soldiers of their own, and agreed to start training militiamen who could leave their jobs and be used as soldiers if necessary. Since the militiamen had to be ready to fight at short notice, they were called *minutemen.
On <st1:date Month="4" Day="18" Year="1775">18 April 1775</st1:date> British soldiers marched out of <st1:City><st1:place>Boston</st1:place></st1:City> into the countryside to search for weapons that the colonists had hidden. Paul *<st1:City><st1:place>Revere</st1:place></st1:City>, a patriot from <st1:City><st1:place>Boston</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2>, rode ahead to warn people that the British were coming. The minutemen got ready, and when they and the British met, the 'shot heard round the world' was fired.
The Revolutionary War
The Americans had the advantage of fighting at home, but <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> was a much stronger military power. There were victories and defeats on both sides during the seven years of war.
The first aim of the American army led by George *<st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> was to force the British, called *Redcoats because of the colour of their uniform, to leave <st1:City><st1:place>Boston</st1:place></st1:City>. On <st1:date Month="6" Day="17" Year="1775">17 June 1775</st1:date> the British fought and won the <st1:City><st1:place>Battle</st1:place></st1:City> of *<st1:place>Bunker Hill</st1:place>, but they lost so many soldiers that their position in <st1:City><st1:place>Boston</st1:place></st1:City> was weak and in March 1776 they were forced to leave. The Continental Congress suggested that <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region> should make an agreement, but <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> refused and so, on <st1:date Month="7" Day="4" Year="1776">4 July 1776</st1:date>, members of the Congress signed the *Declaration of Independence. This document, written by the future President Thomas *<st1:place>Jefferson</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>, gave the Americans' reasons for wanting to be independent. It included ideas that were rather new, e.g. that ordinary people had certain rights that governments should respect. Since the British king *George III refused to accept this, Americans had the right, and the duty, to form their own government.
Later in the same year the British took control of *<st1:State><st1:place>New York</st1:place></st1:State> and *<st1:State><st1:place>Rhode Island</st1:place></st1:State>, and <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>'s army moved away into *<st1:State><st1:place>Pennsylvania</st1:place></st1:State>. The defeats discouraged many Americans, but at Christmas, when soldiers were not expecting an attack, <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> surprised the British by taking his army across the <st1:place>Delaware River</st1:place> to <st1:City><st1:place>Trenton</st1:place></st1:City>, *<st1:State><st1:place>New Jersey</st1:place></st1:State>, and defeating the Hessians, German soldiers paid by the British to fight for them. A story often told is that, before crossing the river, <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2> threw down a silver dollar, thinking that if any guards were near they would hear the noise and come. Since nobody came, he knew it was safe to attack.
<st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>'s army spent the winter at *<st1:place><st1:City>Valley Forge</st1:City>, <st1:State>Pennsylvania</st1:State></st1:place>. It was very cold and the new government of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> did not have money to provide soldiers with warm clothes and food. Many became ill, and many more lost their enthusiasm for the war. But in the spring of 1777 they received help from two different sources. A German, General von Steuben, came to train the American soldiers, and the Marquis de *<st1:City><st1:place>Lafayette</st1:place></st1:City> brought French soldiers to fight on the American side. With this help, the Americans won a victory at *<st1:place><st1:City>Saratoga</st1:City>, <st1:State>New York</st1:State></st1:place>. <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region> and also <st1:country-region><st1:place>Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> supported the <st1:country-region><st1:place>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> because they thought that if <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> became weaker in <st1:place>North America</st1:place>, it would also be weaker in <st1:place>Europe</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>.
Over the next few years, neither side was strong enough to defeat the other completely. But in 1781 <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> saw a perfect opportunity to win. The British General *Cornwallis had taken his army to *<st1:place><st1:City>Yorktown</st1:City>, <st1:State>Virginia</st1:State></st1:place>, where he was too far away to get supplies or help. <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2> marched south to meet him, while French ships made sure that the British could not receive help by sea. Cornwallis realized how bad his position was and surrendered.
In 1783, after a period of talks, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> recognized the <st1:country-region><st1:place>United States of America</st1:place></st1:country-region>, making the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> completely independent and giving it the western parts of <st1:place>North America</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>.
Modern American attitudes to the Revolution
The Revolution is remembered by Americans in many ways. *Freedom, and the right of ordinary people to take part in their own government, the main reasons why Americans fought the War of Revolution, are <I normal?>value</I>s that almost all Americans still support strongly. The *Fourth of July, the day on which the Declaration of Independence was signed, is a national holiday, *Independence Day.
Places, like <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Boston</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Harbour</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> and *Independence Hall in <st1:City><st1:place>Philadelphia</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2>, where the Declaration of Independence was signed, are visited by millions of Americans every year. The names of people involved in the Revolution are known to everyone. George Washington's birthday is celebrated as a national holiday. John *Hancock's signature on the Declaration of Independence was the largest, so today John Hancock means 'signature'. Patrick *Henry is remembered for his speeches, especially for saying, 'Give me liberty or give me death'.
But if Americans remember the Revolution as a great victory, they seem to forget that the British were the enemy. The governments and people of the two countries have always had a special relationship, and for many Americans, even those whose ancestors were not British, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> is still the 'mother country'.
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>The Civil War</B><B normal?><FONT size=2>Causes of the war
</FONT></B><FONT size=2>The American Civil War was fought between the northern and southern states from 1861 to 1865. There were two main causes of the war. The first was the issue of *slavery: should Africans who had been brought by force to the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> be used as slaves. The second was the issue of states' rights: should the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> federal government be more powerful than the governments of individual states.
The North and South were very different in character. The economy of the South was based on agriculture, especially cotton. Picking cotton was hard work, and the South depended on slaves for this. The North was more industrial, with a larger population and greater wealth. Slavery, and opposition to it, had existed since before independence (1776) but, in the 19th century, the abolitionists, people who wanted to make slavery illegal, gradually increased in number. The South's attitude was that each state had the right to make any law it wanted, and if southern states wanted slavery, the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> government could not prevent it. Many southerners became secessionists, believing that southern states should secede from the <st1:place>Union</st1:place> (= become independent from the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>).
In 1860, Abraham *<st1:City><st1:place>Lincoln</st1:place></st1:City> was elected President. He and his party, the *Republicans, were against slavery, but said that they would not end it. The southern states did not believe this, and began to leave the <st1:place>Union</st1:place>. In 1860 there were 34 states in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Eleven of them (<st1:State><st1:place>South Carolina</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Mississippi</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Florida</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Alabama</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:State><st1:place>Louisiana</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Texas</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Virginia</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Arkansas</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Tennessee</st1:place></st1:State> and <st1:State><st1:place>North Carolina</st1:place></st1:State>) left the <st1:place>Union</st1:place> and formed the *Confederate States of <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>, often called the Confederacy. <st1:place>Jefferson</st1:place> *<st1:City><st1:place>Davis</st1:place></st1:City> became its President, and for most of the war *<st1:place><st1:City>Richmond</st1:City>, <st1:State>Virginia</st1:State></st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>, was the capital.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>Four years of fighting</FONT></B><FONT size=2>The US government did not want a war but, on </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:date Month="4" Day="12" Year="1861">12 April 1861</st1:date>, the Confederate Army attacked *<st1:place><st1:PlaceType>Fort</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceName>Sumter</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>, which was in the Confederate state of <st1:State><st1:place>South Carolina</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2> but still occupied by the Union army. President Lincoln could not ignore the attack and so the Civil War began.
Over the next four years the Union army tried to take control of the South. The battles that followed, *<st1:place>Shiloh</st1:place>, <st1:place>Antietam</st1:place>, *<st1:place>Bull Run</st1:place> and Chicamauga, have become part of <st1:country-region><st1:place>America</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s national memory. After the battle of *<st1:City><st1:place>Gettysburg</st1:place></st1:City> in 1863, in a speech known as the *Gettysburg Address, President Lincoln said that the North was fighting the war to keep the <st1:place>Union</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2> together so that '...government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth'. In the same year he issued the *Emancipation Proclamation which made slavery illegal, but only in the Confederacy.
Slaves and former slaves played an important part in the war. Some gave information to Union soldiers, because they knew that their best chance of freedom was for the North to win the war. Many former slaves wanted to become Union soldiers, but this was not very popular among white northerners. In spite of this opposition about 185000 former slaves served in the Union army.
Women on both sides worked as spies, taking information, and sometimes even people, across borders by hiding them under their large skirts.
In the South especially, people suffered greatly and had little to eat. On <st1:date Month="4" Day="9" Year="1865">9 April 1865</st1:date>, when the South could fight no more, General Robert E *Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S *Grant at *Appomattox Court House in <st1:State><st1:place>Virginia</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2>. A total of 620000 people had been killed and many more wounded.
The war was over but feelings of hostility against the North remained strong. John Wilkes *Booth, an actor who supported the South, decided to kill President Lincoln. On <st1:date Month="4" Day="14" Year="1865">14 April 1865</st1:date> he approached the President in Ford's Theatre in <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> and shot him. <st1:City><st1:place>Lincoln</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2> died the next morning.
The killing of President Lincoln showed how bitter many people felt. The South had been beaten, but its people had not changed their opinions about slavery or about states' rights. During the war, the differences between North and South had become even greater. The North had become richer. In the South, cities had been destroyed and the economy ruined.
Reconstruction
After the war the South became part of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> again. This long, difficult period was called Reconstruction. The issues that had caused the war, slavery and states' rights, still had to be dealt with. The issue of slavery was difficult, because many people even in the North had prejudices against Blacks. The new state governments in the South wanted to make laws limiting the rights of Blacks, and the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> government tried to stop them. Between 1865 and 1870 the 13th, 14th and 15th *Amendments to the *Constitution were passed, giving Blacks freedom, making them citizens of the US and the state where they lived, and giving them, in theory, the same rights as white Americans.
Many northern politicians went to the South where they thought they could get power easily. These northerners were called *carpet-baggers. Both carpet-baggers and southern politicians were dishonest and stole money from the new governments, which hurt the South even more.
In 1870 the last three southern states were admitted to the <st1:place>Union</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2> again, and in 1877 the northern army finally left the South. The war lasted four years, but efforts to reunite the country took three times as long.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
<p></FONT>
<p>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2><B normal?>Effects of the Civil War
</B>Differences between North and South are still strong. In the South the Confederate flag is still often used, and the state flags of *<st1:country-region><st1:place>Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region> and *<st1:State><st1:place>Mississippi</st1:place></st1:State> were made to look similar to it. The state motto is Audemus jura nostra defendere, which is Latin for 'We dare to defend our rights'. The Civil War helped to end slavery, but long afterwards Blacks were still being treated badly, and race relations continue to be a problem. The South was so angry with the *Republicans, the party of Lincoln and Reconstruction, that southerners voted *Democratic for a century. The war showed strong differences between parts of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but many people believe that the most important thing it did was to prove that the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> is one country.</FONT></P>
[此贴子已经被作者于2005-3-10 11:13:51编辑过]
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:07:28|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal"><FONT size=2>微生物背景材料</FONT></B><BR line-break"><BR line-break"><p></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>微生物</FONT>
<FONT size=2>微生物是生物中的一大类,与植物和动物共同组成生物界。包括病毒、立克茨体、支原体、衣原体、细菌、放线菌、真菌中的霉菌、酵母菌和螺旋体等,也有将微植物和微动物纳入到其中的。体微小,构造简单,单或多细胞,也有无细胞的。分布广泛,繁殖快且类型多样。它们在自然界和物质转化和循环中起重要作用。具有重大的经济意义和科学意义。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>细菌:<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>世界上最古老的生物也是最成功的生物。支原体没有细胞壁,故细胞柔软,形成分枝状的细胞,故称支原体。细菌细胞内没有细胞核,遗传物质分散于细胞质内,因而细菌属于原核生物(细胞内没有细胞核的生物)。在过去,细菌被划分为植物(仅仅因为有细胞壁!),但在在现代分类学中,细菌已独立一界。广义的细菌就全部囊括了所有的原核生物。细菌微小,大多数只有0.5-2微米,但少数却有0.1-0.3毫米,如纳米比亚硫磺珍珠细菌。细菌细胞结构简单,但有有趣的运动器官。如鞭毛(动画示鞭毛运动)。细胞表面还有菌毛,有些中空菌毛可以把细菌的遗传物质运送到其它细菌,故细菌又有性别之分。细菌的细胞壁由肽聚糖组成,十分坚固。但青霉素可以阻止它的合成,从而杀死细菌。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>细菌分三类:种类最多的杆菌(一般1-10微米);数目众多的球菌(一般1微米)以及纤细活泼的螺旋菌(见照片,一般长10-20微米,直径0.1-0.2微米)。此外还分:靠化学反应合成有机物的化能合成细菌和靠光合作用生产有机物的光合自养菌,如蓝藻菌;以它们合成的有机物为营养来源的异养细菌。还有厌氧细菌;好氧细菌和兼性细菌。还有寄生细菌等等。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>细菌的贡献:由于有了细菌,自然界的有机物才能被分解,才不会到处是生物遗体,才有了食物链(即有机物在自然界的不断循环)。人体消化道的细菌帮助我们分解食物,这一点对食草动物和白蚁十分重要,否则它们将不能消化植物纤维而被活活饿死!好氧细菌共生在原始的真核细胞(细胞有细胞核的生物)中,后来特化为我们细胞中极为重要的线粒体(提供我们能量)...总之,细菌是地球生物圈的基础。细菌将永远生活在我们身边。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>真菌(fungus)<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>一类没有叶绿素,异养的真核微生物.除极少数种类是单细胞外,绝大多数是由多细胞组成的菌丝.结成一团的菌丝称菌丝体.菌丝分有隔菌丝和无隔菌丝两种:有隔菌丝是由多个细胞组成,相邻的细胞之间由隔隔开.无隔菌丝是由一个多核分枝或不分枝的细胞形成.所有的真菌细胞的细胞核都由核膜包裹,所以真菌是一种真核生物.菌丝是真菌的营养结构,能吸收外界的营养.绝大多数真菌有无性生殖和有性生殖两种生殖方式,少数真菌只作无性生殖,或很少进行有性生殖.高等真菌(如担子菌)的菌丝能形成能产生有性孢子的子实体(俗称蘑菇,如左图);有些种类和藻类共生,形成地衣;还有些种类在高等植物的根系上形成菌根。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>真菌与细菌的主要区别在于:真菌是真核生物,而细菌是原核生物。真菌比细菌大,一般放大500倍左右就可以看清。真菌细胞内有线粒体,高尔基复合体,内质网等细胞器,而细菌没有。真菌的核蛋白体沉降系数为80s,而细菌为70s。真菌与植物的主要区别在于:真菌贮藏的养料是肝糖,而绿色植物主要是淀粉。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>真菌适应性很强,几乎到处都有分布.在自然界里,能分解各种有机物,如纤维素,木质素等,在增加土壤肥力以及自然界的物质循环上起着重要的作用,它们与人类的关系非常密切,不少种类的真菌如青霉菌为人类制造重要的抗生素;酵母可以用于制作面食和酿酒(酵母在无氧的环境下可以把葡萄糖转变为酒精,而面粉中或多或少都有一些葡萄糖,所以放久了的面团会有酒味),曲霉也可以用于酿造业;很多真菌还可以做成美味佳肴...但也有一些种类危害人类健康或给人类带来各种经济损失。但总的来说,真菌对人类还是大有益处的。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>病毒<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>病毒是世界上最小的生物。但是它们的起源不详。它比细菌还小百倍,仅仅比蛋白质分子略大。它的大小用纳米(nm )表示。一纳米是十万分之一毫米。我们衡量一个原子的直径用埃来表示。一埃是十分之一纳米。由此可见病毒是多么微小。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>病毒的一级分类:DNA病毒;RNA病毒。二级分类:动物病毒;植物病毒;细菌病毒。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>病毒的结构:病毒的结构极为简单。大多数病毒是由核酸和蛋白质组成的。并且,一种病毒只拥有一种类型的核酸,要么是DNA,要么是RNA。病毒的蛋白质外壳--衣壳组成成分较复杂,上面有各种不同类(如图:HIV病毒--艾滋病病毒)型的受体,多糖等。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>病毒的繁殖:病毒是专性活细胞内寄生物。它不能单独进行繁殖,必须在活细胞内才能繁殖。它的增殖方式称为复制,整个复制过程称为复制周期。概括起来分为:吸附,侵入,脱壳,生物合成,装配与释放等5个步骤。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>噬菌体<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>吸附:病毒粒子借衣壳上的受体与宿主细胞<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>粘附<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>在一起,否则,病毒粒子将不能侵入宿主细胞。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>侵入和脱壳:病毒粒子被宿主细胞通过吞噬作用给<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>吞进<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>了细胞。在细胞里,它通过各种酶的作用将衣壳分解,使病毒粒子核心的核酸进入宿主细胞核或游离在细胞质中。但有些种类的病毒只是把它的核酸送入细胞,而把衣壳留在细胞外面。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>生物合成、装配与释放:病毒的核酸在细胞内借助于宿主细胞的蛋白质合成系统和酶系统不断的复制自己的各种组成成分。当到达一定的数量以后,会组成新的病毒粒子。以各种方式释放出来。有的是使宿主细胞破裂死亡,使病毒粒子释放出来;有的以出芽的方式从细胞上<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>长<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>出来,比如流感病毒... <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>病毒的用处:病毒虽然可以使人得病,但它们却大有用处:它们是遗传学研究的主要材料;细菌病毒可以使病原细菌死亡;昆虫病毒可以杀死害虫,而不会对环境造成破坏,害虫也不容易产生抗药性..<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal">Dust Bowl</B>
<FONT size=2>Dust Bowl, common name applied to a large area in the southern part of the </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place>Great Plains</st1:place> region of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region>, much of which suffered extensively from wind erosion during the 1930s. The area included parts of <st1:State><st1:place>Kansas</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Oklahoma</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>Texas</st1:place></st1:State>, <st1:State><st1:place>New Mexico</st1:place></st1:State>, and <st1:State><st1:place>Colorado</st1:place></st1:State>. In its original state, the region was covered with hardy grasses that held the fine-grained soil in place in spite of the long recurrent droughts and occasional torrential rains characteristic of the area. A large number of homesteaders settled in the region in the 30 years before World War I, planting wheat and row crops and raising cattle. Both of these land uses left the soil exposed to the danger of erosion by the winds that constantly sweep over the gently rolling land. Beginning in the early 1930s, the region suffered a period of severe droughts, and the soil began to blow away. The organic matter, clay, and silt in the soil were carried great distances by the winds, in some cases darkening the sky as far as the Atlantic coast, and sand and heavier materials drifted against houses, fences, and barns. In many places 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) of topsoil were blown away. Many thousands of families, their farms ruined, migrated westward; about a third of the remaining families had to accept government relief.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>Beginning in 1935 intensive efforts were made by both federal and state governments to develop adequate programs for soil conservation and for rehabilitation of the Dust Bowl. The measures taken have included seeding large areas in grass; 3-year rotation of wheat and sorghum and of lying fallow; the introduction of contour plowing, terracing, and strip planting; and, in areas of greater rainfall, the planting of long <FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>shelter belts<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> of trees to break the force of the wind. Dry spells in the 1950s, '60s, and late '70s were responsible for recurrences of dust storms in the region.<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>补充:由于</FONT><FONT size=2>dust bowl导致的洛杉矶地区的移民增加
In the 1930s and 1940s, the region also received two waves of major migrations: that of farm families from the southern Great Plains migrating west to escape the Dust Bowl, and that of African Americans moving out of the American South. During World War II (1939-1945) the need for labor, especially in ship and aircraft production, boosted the population even more. The population of <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Los Angeles</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>County</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> jumped from 3 million to 4.7 million between 1940 and 1950.<p></p></FONT></P>
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:18:04|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal"><FONT size=2>美国文学简史</FONT></B><BR line-break"><BR line-break"><p></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国文学(American Literature) <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国文学的历史不长,它几乎是和美国自由资本主义同时出现,较少受到封建贵族文化的束缚。美国早期人口稀少,有大片未开发的土地,为个人理想的实现提供了很大的可能性。美国人民富于民主自由精神,个人主义、个性解放的观念较为强烈,这在文学中有突出的反映。美国又是一个多民族的国家,移民不断涌入,各自带来了本民族的文化,这决定了美国文学风格的多样性和庞杂性。美国文学发展的过程就是不断吸取、融化各民族文学特点的过程。许多美国作家来自社会下层,这使得美国文学生活气息和平民色彩都比较浓厚,总的特点是开朗、豪放。内容庞杂与色彩鲜明是美国文学的另一特点。个性自由与自我克制、清教主义与实用主义、激进与反动、反叛和顺从、高雅与庸俗、高级趣味与低级趣味、深刻与肤浅、积极进取与玩世不恭、明快与晦涩、犀利的讽刺与阴郁的幽默、精心雕琢与粗制滥造、对人类命运的思考和探索与对**的病态追求等倾向,不仅可以同时并存,而且形成强烈的对照。从来没有一种潮流或倾向能够在一个时期内一统美国文学的天下。美国作家敏感、好奇,往往是一个浪潮未落,另一浪潮又起。作家们永远处在探索和试验的过程之中。20世纪以来,许多文学潮流起源于美国,给世界文学同时带来积极的与消极的影响。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>殖民地时期<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>印第安人的文化欧洲人发现新大陆的时候,北美洲的土著居民印第安人处于原始公社制度各种不同的阶段。印第安人在向大自然的斗争中创造了自己的文化,主要是民间口头创作,包括神话传说和英雄传说。由于他们没有文字,这些传说后来才得以整理问世,启发了后世美国作家的灵感。早期移民的文化移民刚到新大陆时忙于生存斗争,所以开始时文学发展比较缓慢。最早发表的关于北美的作品是游记、日记之类的文字。作者都是英国人。英国殖民地建立之后,统治者利用宗教,主要是清教主义作为控制殖民地思想意识的主要手段,因此许多出版物是关于神学的研究。著名的作家有科顿<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>马瑟(1663-1728)和乔纳森。爱德华兹(1703-1758)等。随着工业、贸易和民族意识的增涨,宗教自由的呼声提高,请教主义的神权统治走向衰亡,为人本主义与自由民主等民族独立的意识所代替。诊歌创作北美出版的第一部诗集《海湾圣诗》是以民歌形式写成的圣诗。迈克尔<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>威格尔斯沃思的诗全是解释加尔文教的教义,成了宗教性的普及读物。女诗人安妮<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>布拉兹特里特写的也是宗教生活,不过多少以世俗的笔调抒写妇女的心情。生前只发表过挽诗的牧师爱德华<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>泰勒反映了严格的清教主义的衰落。在这些诗人身上,英国的影响也是明显的,布拉兹特里特得益于斯宾塞,泰勒的诗里看得出约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>多思和乔治<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>赫伯特的影响。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>独立革命至南北战争时期<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国民族文学形成于独立革命时期。这场斗争产生大量的革命诗歌,并且造就了美国头一批重要的散文家和诗人。政治上的独立促进文化上的独立。战争结束之后,美国作家的作品陆续增多,逐渐摆脱英国文学的垄断局面。年轻的民主共和国使人们满怀信心,并吸引着旧世界更多的人们奔向新的大陆。这样的社会条件促使19世纪上半叶的文学创作具有浪漫主义的色彩。作家们吸取欧洲浪漫派文学的精神,对美国的历史、传说和现实生活进行描绘,美利坚民族内容逐渐丰富和充实起来。从20、30年代到南北战争前夕,是浪漫主义运动的全盛时期,各种不同风格的作家泉涌而出,作品从内容到形式都具有鲜明的民族特色。批评家们称这一时期为美国文学<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>第一次繁荣<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。到了世纪中叶,浪漫主义文学的基调由乐观走向疑虑,迫切的社会矛盾,如蓄奴制,又使某些作家采取现实主义的创作方法。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>民族文学的诞生 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>独立革命是美国民族文学诞生的背景。早在战争爆发之前,美国殖民地人民在欧洲启蒙主义学说影响之<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>下,已经具有民族独立的意识。富兰克林世俗的格言比爱德华兹清教,主义的教诲更能吸引广大群众。富兰克林用清晰、幽默的文体传播了科学文化,激发自力更生的精神,他的爱国热情和关于自学、创业的言论,对于美国人民的人生观、事业观和道德观产生了深远的影响。独立革命期间充满反抗与妥协之间的尖锐斗争,迫使作家们采取政论、演讲、散文等简便而又犀利的形式投入战斗。发表<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>不自由毋宁死<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>这一名言的演说家舶特里克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>亨利,象战鼓那样鼓动战士奋勇杀敌的托马斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>潘恩,行文朴质无华却字字击中要害的托马斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>杰斐逊,都是无畏的战士,他们为了战斗的需要锤炼自己的语言艺术。那个时期的诗歌也具有强烈<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>的政治性,大量的革命歌谣出自民间。菲利普<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>弗瑞诺是当时著名的革命诗人,他的创作开创了美国诗歌的优秀传统。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>早期浪漫主义文学 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>19世纪初,一些以美国为背景、美国人为主人公的作品开始出现,初具美利坚民族的特色。欧文致力<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>发掘北美早期移民的传说故事,他的《见闻札记》开创了美国短篇小说的传统。库珀在《皮袜子故事集》中以印第安人部落的灭亡为背 景,表现了勇敢、正直的移民怎样开辟美国文明的途径。诗人布莱思特笔下的自然景色完全是美国式的,他歌颂当地常见的水乌和野花,而且通过它们歌颂人与人之间的和谐。这些作家的作品满怀乐观向上的时代精神。色彩阴暗的爱伦<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>坡在诗歌、短篇小说和理论批评方面达到新的水平,标志着民族文学的多样性和在艺术上的发展。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>超验主义与后期浪漫主义 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>19世纪30年代以后,东北部沿海的美国文化中心新英格兰地区成了最早的工业区。杰克逊总统的民主主义路线又使国内的民主空气增涨。这在意识形态上造成两方面的后果:一方面出现了超验主义者团体,另一方面使一些作家产生不少疑虑,浪漫主义文学的基调由乐观转向怀疑和消极。超验主义是一场思想解放运动,先表现为宗教,哲学思想中的改革,后扩展到文学创作领域。以爱默生为首的超验主义者为了据弃加尔文教派<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>以神为中心<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的思想,吸取康德先验论和欧洲浪漫派理论家的思想材料,提出人凭直觉认识真理,因而在一定范围内人就是上帝。这一派思想的出发点是人文主义,即强调入的价值,反对权威,祟尚直觉,主张个性解放,打破神学和外国教条的束缚,对美国作家产生不小的影响。到了50年代,随着工业化引起的种种社会问题的出现,作家们敏锐地感受到民主制的弊病。梭罗侧重超验主义中人的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>自助<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>精神,主张回返自然,保持纯真的人性,因此与资产阶级社会秩序发生冲突。在霍桑与梅尔维尔身上,这种矛盾以抽象、神秘的形式表现出来。霍桑深受加尔文教派的影响,又想有所摆脱,于是转向对人类状况与命运的探索,如《红字》(1850)。梅尔维尔同霍桑一样,把他所感觉到的社会矛盾归结为抽象的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>恶<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,而<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>恶<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的强大与不可理解使《白鲸》(1851)等作品蒙上神秘、悲观的气氛。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>婆罗门<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>婆罗门<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>是指这一时期新英格兰地区一批有高度文化教养的作家,或称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>绅士派诗人<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。朗费罗、洛威<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>尔(1819-1891)和霍姆斯(1809-1894)都是知识界的名流。他们出于资产阶级民主主义和人道主义,歌颂爱国主义精神,反对蓄奴制,同情印第安人,也对社会流弊提出一些批评。由于他们的出身地位和文化教养,他们的观点和情绪一般较为温和。废奴文学19世纪30年代之后,北部进步人士掀起越来越高涨的废除黑奴运动。黑人的处境激起许多作家的同情,从爱默生、朗费罗到惠特曼都写过反对蓄奴的诗篇。影响最大的作品是斯托夫人的小说《汤姆叔叔的小屋》(1852),林肯称她为<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>发动了一次战争的小妇人<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。诗人惠蒂埃抗议蓄奴制的诗篇数量最多,反映了19世纪废奴运动历次重大的斗争。废奴文学虽限于道义上的谴责,却推动了废奴斗争,在文学史上也是19世纪现实主义创作的先声。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>伟大的民主诗人怠特曼 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国19世纪的民主精神在惠特曼的《草叶集》(1855)里得到充分发挥。他以丰富、博大、包罗万象的气魄反映了广大劳动群众在民主革命时期的乐观向上精神。他歌颂劳动,歌颂大自然,歌颂物质文明,歌颂<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>个人<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的理想形象;他的歌颂渗透着对人类的广泛的爱。诗人以豪迈、粗犷的气概蔑视蓄奴制和一切不符合自由民主理想的社会现象。他那种奔放的自由诗体,同他的思想内容一样,也是文学史上的创新,产生了广泛的影响。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2> </FONT>
<FONT size=2>南北战争到第一次世界大战 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>从南北战争结束到第一次世界大战,美国文学总的倾向是现实主义的兴起、发展和浪漫主义的衰微。南北战争结束后的20、30年内,资本主义处于自由竞争阶段,民主、自由的理想鼓舞着人民和作家,文学创作中乐观的情绪处于主导地位。80年代以后,经过几次经济危机,社会动荡不安,人们怀疑民主制度是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>人人自由、幸福的天堂<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。80、90年代以后,批判现实、揭露社会黑暗的作品增多,主题涉及农村的破产,城市下层人民的困苦,劳资斗争,不少作品揭露种族歧视、海外侵略和政府与大企业的勾结,也有些作品表现了空想社会主义的情绪。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>乡土文学与马克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>吐温 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>乡土文学最先出现于19世纪20、30年代,南北战争后进一步发展。这种文学描绘本乡本土的传说与现实生活,地方色彩浓厚,基调是乐观的、抒情的,如描写西部矿工生活的布雷特<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>哈特(1836-1902),或者是幽默的、机智的,如裘维特(1849-1909),这是战后美国健康、活泼生活情趣的反映。马克。吐温的创作活动持续近50年,是这时期主要的作家,代表作是《哈克贝里<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>费思历险记》(1884)。他早期的短篇小说吸取西部乡土文学中幽默故事的特点,采用诙谐、滑稽的夸张手法表现美国的社会生活。他对战后美国社会的批评包括政治腐败、种族歧视、教育制度、宗教生活等方面。这些批评都是温和的、善意的。80年代以后,随着他对美国民主制的认识深化,讽刺成分增多,后期发展到愤怒的抗议甚至悲观失望。马克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>吐温是幽默艺术的大师。他在滑稽中含有讽刺,逗趣中有所针砭,创造了独特的艺术风格。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>心理分析小说家亨利<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>詹姆斯 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>出身高贵、深受欧洲文化影响的亨利<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>詹姆斯是描写上层资产阶级精神面貌的代表作家。他的风格高雅、细致,讲究表现形式,与粗犷、诙谐、富于生活情趣的马克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>吐温适成对比。詹姆斯虽然崇拜欧洲文化,但在<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>道德情操方面更偏向于文化修养不高的美国人。美国人心地纯真、善良;比欧洲人(或常任欧洲的美国人)可爱,这是他的《贵妇人的画像》(1881)等小说中常出现的主题。他开创了心理分析小说的先河,他的作品,尤其是后期作品如《鸽翼》(1902),不厌其详地发掘人物<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>最幽微、最朦胧的<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>思想与感觉,把<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>太空中跳动的脉搏<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>转化为形象。在心理分析精微细致这一点上,詹姆斯达到前所未有的境界,为小说艺术的表现力开辟了新的途径。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>现实主义文学的兴起 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>80、90年代以后,随着垄断资本的逐步形成,以劳资矛盾为焦点的各种社会问题尖锐化、表面化,作家们对社会的前景感到忧虑和失望。威<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>迪<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>豪威尔斯抛弃早期那种廉价的乐观主义,开始表现社会矛盾。在欧洲现实主义与自然主义文学的影响下,一批新兴的作家从许多方面反映社会消极的一面。哈<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>加兰(1860-1940)笔下的农民感到绝望;弗.诺里斯(1870-1902)小说中的农场主被铁路资本压垮;斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>克莱思(1871-1900)暴露城市的贫民窟生活;欧<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>亨利的小市民让命运捉弄得哭笑不得。尤其是杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦,他描写那些挣扎在社会底层的工人和流浪汉,较早表现出社会主义革命的愿望。现实主义作家各具艺术特色,加兰写得逼真,诺里斯反映了广阔的社会图景,克莱思引进了印象主义手法,杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的文笔刚健有力,叙述引人人胜。欧.亨利运用悬念、突变等手法,开辟了美国式短篇小说的途径。这些作家都对美国文学的成熟作出了贡献。现实主义文学进入20世纪后,发展为两个分支。一支是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑幕揭发者<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑幕揭发者<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>写城市生活,专事揭发大企业中触目惊心的腐败情况,改良主义色彩较浓。写法上多用新闻体,形象描写的艺术性较差。另一支是以德莱塞为首的现实主义小说家。德莱塞广泛而深入地描绘了美国社会的真实图景。他的《嘉莉妹妹》(1900)等早期作品描写劳动妇女进人大城市和上层社会后被侮辱、被损害的遭遇。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>黑人文学 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国黑人文学起源于黑人奴隶歌曲,这些歌曲,不论是悲歌还是民歌,倾诉了黑人背井离乡、沦为奴隶的痛苦心情。书写文学最早出现在18世纪,19世纪以后陆续增多。表现形式先是诗歌,再是小说。作者多数是已经获得自由的黑人。除少数迎合白人读者的口味外,多数作家倾吐黑人奴隶的苦难,控诉蓄奴制的罪恶。南北战争前后,以道格拉斯(1817-1895)为首的黑人作家提出废除蓄奴制、争取黑人人权的要求。黑人文学的战斗性增强。南北战争后出现的诗人邓巴(1872-1906)、小说家切斯纳特(1858-1932)在艺术上更为成熟,前者想象丰富,表现含蓄,后者揭露了战后南方种族歧视的状况,但对白人统治者又存有幻想,反映了黑人知识分子的思想倾向。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>次世界大战之间 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>从第一次世界大战到第二次世界大战,是美国文学的第二次繁荣时期。20年代,各种流派相继出现,表现了高度发展的资本主义社会的种种矛盾和精神世界方面的问题。30年代基本上是左翼文学占主导地位,从30年代后期起,文学界分化成各个流派,又出现了纷坛多样的局面。总的来说,现代派文学与左翼文学是这个时期两股最大的文学思潮。从这个时期起,美国文学开始发生世界性的影响。1930年后,美国作家陆续得到诺贝尔文学奖金。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>现代派文学的兴起 20世纪初,美国的经济有了很大发展。垄断资本进一步集中,大城市人口密集,工农运动规模越来越大。社会面貌与人的精神面貌,已非19世纪传统现实主义手法与惠特曼式的风格所能准确反映。大战前的最初10年为孕育新的风格、新的流派作了准备。欧洲的现代派文艺不断介绍到美国。19世纪下半期美国的诗歌处于过渡阶段,继惠特曼后只出现了一个重要诗人艾米莉<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>狄更生。她一反浮夸的浪漫主义诗风,以不规则的韵律、奇特的对照和自由的联想,打开了通向美国现代诗的道路。1912年,《诗刊》在芝加哥创办,标志着现代派文艺的开始。《诗刊》的头3卷里,出现了庞德(1885-1973)、韦<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>林赛(1879-1931)、艾<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>洛威尔(1874-1925)、威<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>卡<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>威廉斯(1883-1963)、桑德堡(1878-1967)、沃<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>斯蒂文斯(1879-1955)、艾<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>李<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>马斯特斯 (1868-1950)、玛<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>莫尔(1887-1972)等人的作品。这些人后来都成为美国有成就的诗人。其中有意象主义者<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>,有接近劳动人民的芝加哥诗派,有20世纪的田园诗人,有新的乡土主义者,有抽象哲理派诗人。他们的共同点是表现现代资本主义社会中越来越突出的人的异化,并或多或少流露出仿惶和悲观的情绪。即使是田园诗,弗罗斯特笔下的新英格兰风光也笼罩着疏远、陌生与死亡的阴影。现代派诗歌的代表作是艾略特的《荒原》(1922)。这首诗为西方现代社会提供了一个象征性的比喻。现代主义在戏剧方面的代表人物是奥尼尔,他的剧作受到象征主义、表现主义和弗洛伊德主义的影响。他对美国社会的合理性表示怀疑,创造了美国现代的悲剧。在小说方面,格<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>斯泰因(1874-1946)与舍<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>安德森(1876-1941)开创了美国现代派小说的道路。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>迷惘的一代 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>第一次世界大战结束几年之后,对这次战争的厌恶情绪开始在文学上有所反映。<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>迷惘的一代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的作家大多参加过这次战争,他们普遍有一种被欺骗、被出卖的感受。他们不再相信虚伪的道德说教,而以玩世不恭的生活态度来表示自己的消极抗议。<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>迷惘的一代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的代表作是海明威的《太阳照样升起》(1926)。有些作家没有赶上参加战争,如<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>爵士时代的歌手<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>菲茨杰拉尔德,他的情绪是和<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>迷惘的一代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>相通的。海明威、菲茨杰拉尔德等作家唱出了幻灭的哀歌。稍晚的托马斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>沃尔夫(1900-1938)在短短的10年间写出了好几百万字小说,其中的主人公都是他自己,主题是不断寻求连作者自己也不甚清楚的目标。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>现实主义文学的发展 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>这个时期传统现实主义的文学作品仍然不断出现,并且有所发展。德莱塞这个时期的作品,包括《欲望三部曲》(1912,1914,1947)和《美国的悲剧》(1925),对现实的反映和批判越来越深刻。辛<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>刘易斯的《大街》(1920)粉碎了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>村镇是美好的世外桃源<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的神话。他后来的作品对商业、科技、宗教界的问题都作了揭露,他所塑造的巴比特成了庸俗、浮夸、讲求实利的中产阶级的典型人物。女作家蔽拉<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>凯瑟(1873-1947)以歌颂拓荒者开始,进而批判金钱势力,后来又从历史中去发掘现代美国所缺乏的精神美。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>哈莱姆文艺复兴<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>黑人文学20年代也有较大发展。在当时文艺界推祟<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>原始主义<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的影响下,纽约的黑人区出现了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>哈莱姆文艺复兴<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。休斯(1902-1967)、卡伦(1903-1946)等都是当时涌现出来的优秀作家。他们的作品在描写异族情调的同时,发掘了黑人古老传统,树立了民族自尊心。到了30年代未,黑人文学的战斗性进一步增长,出现了理查德<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>赖特的《土生子》(1940)这样的优秀作品。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>左翼文学与反法西斯文学 1929年,美国出现特大经济危机,各种社会矛盾急剧尖锐化。工农运动高涨,马克思主义的影响扩大。约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>里德(1887-1920)是左翼文学的创始者。30年代起,左翼作家队伍迅速扩大,成立了许多左翼文学团体与组织,创办了各种文学刊物,并在美共领导下举行了多次会议。在作品方面,左翼作家写出了一批坚实的作品。在文坛上已确立了地位的名作家,如多斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>帕索斯、斯坦贝克等,在这股思潮的影响下也创作出一些优秀的社会抗议小说,如《美国》三部曲(1930,1932,1936)和《愤怒的葡萄》(1939)。30年代后期,国内外形势发生变化,左翼文学队伍开始分化。海明威、海尔曼等作家参<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>加了反法西斯斗争,他们的作品提醒人民要警惕新的威胁。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>南方文艺复兴<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>20年代,南方开始出现文学团体,创办了不少刊物。在诗歌、小说创作与文艺批评方面,都出现了一些有代表性的人物。一些作家先后形成<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>逃亡者<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>集团、重农派与<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新批评派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,一时颇有影响。最重要的南方作家是威廉<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>福克纳,他的作品如《声音与疯狂》(1929)等,在构筑一个独特的艺术世界、反映南方精神面貌、刻划复杂的人物性格与艺术手法的多样创新上,都很出色。一般认为他是欧美现代派文学重要的代表人物之一。福克纳以及其他南方作家大多站在道德、宗教的立场上批判现代资本主义的物质文明。他们的作品里有许多对罪恶和变态心理的描写。他们的用意是清除污秽,让心爱的故乡变得干净一些。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>戏剧的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黄金时代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国19世纪的戏剧并不发达,剧本缺乏文学价值。1915年以前,商业化倾向严重,多数剧作可以用<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>挤人眼泪、逗人乐、吓唬人<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>几个词来概括。在这以后的25年里,美国的戏剧赶上了世界水平。大学里设立了戏剧课,小剧场雨后春笋般出现,冲击了戏剧界的商业习气。百老汇本身也进行了一些改革。奥尼尔是新戏剧运动的主力。他的特点是把枯燥乏味的日常生活与美好的梦想加以对照,同时用大胆创新的戏剧手法表现出来,以达到哲理、心理的高度,代表作有《天边外》(1920)、《哀悼》(1931)等。当时还涌现出一大批优秀的剧作家,有的用新奇手法揭示机器对人的压迫,有的用爵士乐般喧闹的节奏表现下层社会复杂多样的生活,有的写出了有心理深度的社会批判剧,有的通过小人物日常生活发掘善良、优美的人性。这个时期是美国戏剧的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黄金时代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新批评<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国的文艺批评一向不算发达,19世纪只有爱伦<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>坡和亨利<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>詹姆斯在理论批评方面有一些创见。第一次世界大战前后,自由派批评家布鲁克斯(1886-1963)抨击粉饰现实的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>斯文传统<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,为新文学的出现摇旗呐喊。他在重新评价美国文学传统方面做了许多工作,有助于美国文学界自信心的确立。门肯(1880-1956)是一个勇猛的偶象破坏者,他在横扫旧的偏见的同时也带来了不少新的偏见,但是他在为现代文学扫清道路方面有他的贡献。20年代前后占统治地位的文艺批评是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新人文主义者<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,他们尊祟古代的理性传统,提出<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>自我节制<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的口号,实际上是反对新文学的发展。他们不久即消失了影响。30年代出现了马克思主义的文艺批评。左翼批评家批判资产阶级文学,尝试用历史唯物主义观点看待美国文学传统,学习苏联文学经验,扶植美国无产阶级文学,不久因为形势发生变化而中断。40年代开始一直延续到50年代,最有影响的文艺批评流派是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新批评派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。这一派的批评家注重对文学作品本身进行精密分析,在现代诗歌的分析上有其独到之处,他们摆脱了过去仅仅介绍背景知识与发挥个人印象的批评方式。但这一流派总的倾向是忽视文学作品的社会意义,割断作品与历史、社会背景的关系。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>第二次世界大战后<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>第二次世界大战规模空前。战争中发生的事,如600万犹太人被屠杀,原子弹在广岛爆炸,使美国知识分子感到震惊。他们怀疑人性是否还有善良的一面,也感到人难以控制自己制造出来的巨大物质力量。他们对文明与进步的信念发生了极大动摇。50年代在<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>冷战<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>、麦卡锡主义和朝鲜战争的背景下,文坛趋于沉寂;印、70年代,经过越南战争、民权运动、学生运动、女权运动、水门案件,文坛活跃起来,出现了一批爱思索的作家。在他们眼里,美国的社会变得十分复杂,价值观念混乱。他们普遍感到不知怎样解释这样的现实,于是便通过怪诞、幻想、夸张的方式,再现生活中的混乱、恐怖和疯狂。他们表现的是没有目标与<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>方向的梦境世界他们讲的是支离破碎的故事,写的是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>反英雄<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>、甚至是不完整的形象。这个时期,文学作品中对**(包括同性爱)的描写也更为; 露骨。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>战争文学 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>战后出现的第一股文学浪潮是战争小说。其中较好的是梅勒的《裸者和死者》(1948)和詹姆斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>琼斯的《从<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>这里到永恒》(1951)。两部书的共同点是通过战争,写小兵、下级军官与军事机构的矛盾,即人的个性与扼杀个性的权力机构之间的冲突。这些小说已经触及战后整个一代文学最突出的一个主题。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>怯懦的十年<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>50年代,右翼保守势力向30年代激进主义传统进攻,许多人由关心社会进步转而关心个人的私利。这10年被称为<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>怯懦的十年<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>或<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>沉寂的十年<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。这期间,出现了一些作品,将资产阶级描绘成正面人物,鼓吹服从权威,如《穿灰法兰绒衣服的人》(1955)。这类作品企图维护既定价值标准和现存社会秩序,很快就失去了影响。另一方面,阿瑟<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>米勒等作家抵制麦卡锡主义,继续用作品抨击社会的不正义。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>垮掉的一代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> 50年代沉闷的政治空气使许多青年感到窒息,他们吸毒、群居,以颓唐、放纵的生活方式来表示自己的抗议。其中有些人把这种生活与情绪写入文学作品,这便是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>垮掉的一代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>文学。这种文学发展到60年代后,在国内民主运动高涨的背景下,增加了一些政治色彩。但是对他们中许多人来说,东方宗教与东方哲学更具有吸引力。<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>垮掉的一代<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>在诗歌创作方面较有生气,并恢复了美国诗歌朗诵的传统。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑色幽默<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>进入60年代之后,人们对生活中的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>非理性<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>和<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>异化<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>现象,有了更深切的体会。有些作家在作品中,用夸张、超现实的手法,将欢乐与痛苦、可笑与可怖、柔情与残酷、荒唐古怪与一本正经揉和在一起,使读者哭笑不得,感到不安,从而对生活能有更深一层的认识。作者对世界前景的看法往往是悲观的。这就是<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑色幽默<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>文学,代表作有海勒的《第二十二条军规》(1961)等。有人将阿尔比的作品也列入<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑色幽默<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>派中。阿尔比是美国荒诞派戏剧的代表人物。他的喜剧并没有什么滑稽、幽默的成分,但是在使读者感到不安这一点上与<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑色幽默<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>一致。这说明荒诞派戏剧与<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑色幽默<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>小说之间存在着血缘关系。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>非虚构小说<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT> <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>60、70年代,出现了<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新新闻报道<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>或<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>非虚构小说<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>这一种新的文学样式。有些作家认为现实生活的离奇已经超过了作家的想象力,与其虚构小说,不如用写小说的手法来描绘引起社会轰动的事件。这样的体裁允许报道者描写事件时掺杂自己的观察和想象,也可以采用各种象征手法。这种作品比一般报告文学深人细致,其中也包括作者的观察与想象,带有更多的作者个人色彩,艺术感染力较强,例如卡波特的《凶杀》(1966)与梅勒的《刽子手之歌》(1979)。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>犹太人文学 美国当代作家中,犹太裔作家占相当大的比重,犹太人文学几乎可以视为一种<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>次文化<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>或<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>文化支流<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。犹太人文学作品一般都具有古老的欧洲文化与现代的美国文化的双重色彩,两种文化的冲突与归并使犹太人文学增加了复杂性。宗教思想与同胞遭到屠杀使犹太作家产生犯罪感与负疚感,历史的命运又使他们有流浪感与漂泊感,美国的异化社会也使他们感到找不到归宿。因此,寻找<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>自我本质<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>便成为他们的作品中一个突出的主题。有代表性的作品是贝洛的《奥吉。玛琪历险记》。实际上,这是犹太民族确立自己的民族地位与民族尊严的一种表现。70年代后期,代表西方较新思想体系的贝洛与属于意第绪文化传统的辛格(1904- )相继得到诺贝尔奖金,说明犹太人文学在美国文学中的重要性。其他重要的犹太作家还有马拉默德<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>(1914- )、罗 斯(1933- )等。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>黑人文学 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>战后黑人文学更趋成熟。拉尔夫<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>埃利逊 (1914- )的小说《看不见的人》和鲍德温的散文,均已达到第一流<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>文学的水平。他们对种族不平等的抗议采取了更细腻、更深刻的表达方式。他们希望人们认识到黑人是具有全部人性的人。这个时期里,女诗人关德琳<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>布鲁克斯(1917-)的诗得到普遍好评;女剧作家洛伦<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>亨斯伯利(1930-1965)的剧本《太阳下的葡萄干》(1959)首创了黑人戏剧在百老汇上演的记录。勒鲁伊<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>琼斯(1934- )是新一代的黑人诗人,他给自己另外起了一个穆斯林名字,表示他对美国文化的鄙弃。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>南方作家 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>南方文学这个时期仍有发展,老作家福克纳、波特(1890-1980)、威尔蒂(1909- )仍有重要作品问世。新作<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>家也不断涌现,著名的有斯泰伦(1925-)、奥康诺(1925-1964)、麦柯勒斯(1917-1967)等。他们不再从历史的传奇里寻找题材,而是关心现实生活中南方人精神上的苦闷。坦<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>威廉斯(1914-)是战后享有盛名的南方剧作家,他的《玻璃动物园》等作品通过人物的性变态心理表现生活的不幸与空虚。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>纽约作家 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>纽约的作家不象南方作家那样具有某种共同的心理因素。人们把他们归在一起,是因为他们都为纽约的几家杂志(《党派评论》、《纽约书评》与《纽约人》)写作,这几家杂志上发表的评论与小说往往对美国文学的时尚产生影响。利<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>特里林(1905-1975)与玛<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>麦卡锡(1912- )是很有见地的评论家,约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>契弗 (1912- )与厄普代克(1932-)的小说用含有诗意又带有嘲讽的细腻的笔触探索大城市郊区居民的心理和意识,为东北部的中产阶级描绘了一幅幅工笔精致的风俗画。 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>个性化的诗歌 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>这个时期,美国陆续出现了不少诗歌派别,如<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>垮掉派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>、<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>黑山派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>、<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>纽约派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>、<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>具体派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>、<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>自白派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>和<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新超现实主义派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。这些派别各有主张,但其共同点是企图摆脱艾略特的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>非个性化<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的影响。新一代的诗人直抒胸臆,突出个人因素,具有一种<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>现时性<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。他们强调美国特色,不再视伦敦为英语诗歌中心;他们干预政治,不再以超然物外而自傲;他们反对权力机构,蔑视传统规约,他们的诗歌描写吸毒、**(包括同**)、精神分裂与对自杀的眷恋。这一切,可以看作对西方机械化、标准化、非人性化的社会的一种反叛。理论与批评战后,<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新批评派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的势力逐渐衰落。到了60年代,随着各种激进运动的此起彼落,加上欧洲传来<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>新左派<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的思潮,学术界重新研究马克思主义,又出现把马克思主义与弗洛伊德心理学融合的理论主张。同时,结构主义的理论也开始在学术界流行。这个时期里,文学家传记这种样式比较繁荣,出现了许多详尽的评传,较有代表性的是5卷本的《亨利<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>詹姆斯传》(1953-1972),作者是里<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>艾迪尔(1907- )。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></B></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal"><FONT size=2>背景知识</FONT></B>
<FONT size=2>杰克伦敦生平 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦(Jack London,18766-1916)原名约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>格利菲斯<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦(John Griffith London),生于美国旧金山,大约是个占星术家的私生子,在一个既无固定职业亦无固定住所的家庭中长大。十四岁小学毕业,就辍了学,在旧金山和奥克兰一带以各种方式求生,亦以养家。二十岁时曾进加州大学读书,一学期后即因贫困辍学。1900年出版了第一个小说集《狼子》(The Son of the Wolf),立即誉满全国,那时他二十四岁。到1916年他年满四十时,已出版了五十一部著作,是很高产的作家。他的作品在当时独树一帜,充满筋肉暴突的生活和阳刚之气,最受男子汉的欢迎。有人说在他以前的美国小说大都是为姑娘们写的,而他的作品则属于全体读者。不但普通读者欢迎,就是大家闺秀们也喜欢放下窗帘关上大门偷偷去品味他那精力旺盛、气势逼人的作品。他在现代美国文学和世界文学里都享有崇高的地位。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>1杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的生活经历之丰富在世界作家之中是不多见的。因为出身贫困,他从小学毕业后便去工作。做过报童和罐头厂工人,在街头斗殴中锻炼出一身本领,成了小流氓头。十三岁时他曾只身驾驶小船通过暴风雨里的旧金山湾,别人都难以相信,可那是事实。后来他攒了一点钱,买了一只小船,原本是为了好玩,不久却结识了蚝贼,便也做起不要本钱的买卖,纠集了一伙同伴驾了船去偷窃旧金山湾养殖户的蚝,甚至烧毁别人的船只。那时他才十五岁,却已有了一个十六岁的情妇,在船上安了一个家。他打架、酗酒、大笑狂欢,在几百英里的海路上自由浪荡。不久以后他却结识了海湾巡警,又反过来做了巡警,去追捕盗窃养殖品的贼。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>十七岁时,他上了一艘捕猎船做水手,经过朝鲜、日本,到西伯利亚去捕海豹。途中经受了严寒、风暴、最沉重的苦役的锻炼。因为从小在海湾里玩船,驾船很有本领,年纪虽小却深得船主和同伴们赞许。又因为从小饱经摔打,能够在水手舱里参加水手们最野蛮的活动,交了许多朋友;听见了许多故事。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>远航归来,他把自己的经历写成了一篇散文《日本港口的台风》,参加了《呼声》杂志的写作竞赛,因为内容独特且有一定深度和表现力,荣获第一名,第二、三名都是大学生。第一名奖金二十元,在当时是一笔不小的收入。刚开始写作便取得了这样突出的成绩,显然会给他巨大的鼓舞,也许他便是因此而走上文学之路的。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>这时,杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦逐渐从早期的蒙昧中醒悟了过来。他立志掌握当时最先进的技术:电气,便到奥克兰电车公司的发电厂去求职。他对经理说为了学习技术他什么苦都可以吃,经理便让他一天干活十三个小时,没有星期天,把他累得死去活来。后来他才知道实际上有两个工人被他顶去了工作,那两个人每月各四十元,共是八十元,而他一个月才拿三十元。而且一个被他夺去工作的人因为有一妻三子要养活,却又无法为生,便自杀了。这对于杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦是一次极其深刻的教训,他愤然抛下了手中的煤铲。这次苦役使他懂得了一个可怕的真理:无论自己如何身强力壮,十年二十年之后总会有更年轻力壮的人来接替他,把他扔到垃圾堆里去。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>那时正是美国大萧条的1894年。他加入了从旧金山到华盛顿去请愿的失业者队伍,向东海岸的华盛顿进发。他感到流浪汉的世界里充满不断变化的幻影,能见到许多平时认为不可能的事,又恰好因故脱离了请愿队伍,便偷乘火车在北美大陆各地流浪。他在车上和车警、锅炉工、乘务员捉迷藏,周游全国,以此为乐。曾经被捕,罚做过三十天苦工,亲眼见到了美国监狱里骇人听闻的现实。出狱后他偷乘西去的列车到了加拿大西海岸,再从那儿做水手南下,回到旧金山。在流浪时他曾一连多少个月在车上、车下和露天睡觉,乞讨度日,养成了吃苦耐劳的本领,也明白了一个道理:最能怜惜穷人的其实是穷人。他说:<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>给狗一块骨头不算善心,善心是跟狗一样饿时却与别人分享骨头。<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>他的这一体会在《马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸》的玛利亚身上有动人的描写。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>他一直对读书就有兴趣,就连在做蚝贼时他也在他那小船上读过许多书。流浪归来他开始了大量的阅读。他读圣西门、傅立叶、蒲鲁东的作品,明白了私有财产的罪恶;他读马克思的《共产党宣言》,大体懂得了共产主义是怎么回事。为了读书,他十九岁时进了奥克兰中学,准备考大学,同时加入了社会党。那时的社会党还主要是个文化团体。他参加工人的集会,并发表激烈的演说,说资本主义是一种有组织的掠夺制度,主张破坏现有的社会秩序。这在当时是非常犯忌的,他曾因此被捕。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>在奥克兰中学读书时他曾在那学校的报纸上发表了小说《小笠原群岛》,连载了两个月,还发表了其他的作品。他从事文学的兴趣更浓厚了。二十岁时他进了加州大学,但由于贫穷.一学期后又辍了学。他决心靠写作为生,但在他的作品还没有带给他收入以前他还得干活。他只好在洗衣作里找了一份工作,辛辛苦苦地洗那洗不完的脏衣物。他陷入了一个尖锐的矛盾之中。他明白了:当一个人为工资而劳动时,他就没有闲暇,也没有时间阅读、思想,甚至没有时间生活。他不过是一部机器,注入食物和睡眠只是为了继续工作。他的这种体会在本书《马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸》有关洗衣作的几章里有深刻的描写。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>这时阿拉斯加州的克朗代克发现金矿的消息传来,给他带来了解决矛盾的希望。1897年3月杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦踏上了淘金的路。他得到资助和三个同伴筹备了八千磅物资准备在克朗代克过冬。他们必须赶在寒冬之前到达靠近北极的育空河流域,路途漫长而艰险。在齐尔库山,伦敦身背一百五十磅的行李攀登笔陡的山崖,上下一次要一整天。他们四个人用了九十天才把他们的全部物资背到了山顶。许多淘金者都在这座山下被淘汰,退出了行列。然后他们又自己砍伐木料,造了两艘船,沿有空河而下。途中他们遇到一段湍急凶险的河流,许多人都曾试图通过而失败,都说那河段是无法通过的天险,但是杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦却说他有把握通过。他们果然驾了船在围观者的一片欢呼声中安然冲过了急流,再步行回来驾驶第二只船。这事引起了注意,陆陆续续有许多人来请他们帮助把船驶过急流去。杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦每只船索要报酬二十五元,然后便由他掌舵,几个同伴合力把一艘又一艘的木船驶过了险区。他们一伙挣得了三千元。还有五千元可赚,但已经没有了时间,因为他们还得在冬天到来之前赶到下游去。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>他们在零下四五十度的育空河旁度过了一个快乐的冬天。杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦在营地里读了许多书。他读了达尔文的《物种原始》,斯宾塞的《首要原理》,海克尔的《宇宙之谜》,甚至马克思的《资本论》,也读了密尔顿的《失乐园》和许多文学作品。但是他们没有在育空河流域找到金子。他们认为是金沙的矿石其实是云母。尽管如此,杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦仍然大有收获。他把在那里的经历和见闻做了详细的笔记,那便是他后来发表的阿拉斯加小说的极其珍贵的材料。杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦因为没有新鲜蔬菜水果吃,患了坏血病,只好起身回家。他和伙伴们驾了一只船,用十九天工夫走完了一千九百英里的航程,来到白令海峡,然后从那里回到了加利福尼亚。在这一千九百英里的航程中杰克、伦敦已经开始勾勒出了他一些小说的轮廓。后来他写了出来,让自己获得了永生,也让那里的人和几只狗获得了永生。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>从育空河回来之后的几年里,他不断读书和写作,每天工作十九个小时。他阅读的范围非常广泛。在经济学方面地读亚当</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>斯密的《原富》,马尔萨斯的《人口论》,李嘉图的《分配论》,约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>穆勒的《股份论》;在政治学方面他读亚里士多德的著作,读吉朋的《罗马帝国衰亡史》,探索中世纪政治和教会的斗争;他读宗教改革的先驱马丁,路德和加尔文的作品,探索宗教对政治的影响;为了理解现代政治的缘起,他阅读霍布斯、洛克和休漠;在形而上学方面他读康德、黑格尔、贝克莱和莱布尼兹;在人类学方面他读波兹和佛雷泽;在生物学方面地读达尔文、赫百黎,尤其喜欢读斯宾塞的《首要原理》。在《马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸》对我们见到他对斯宾塞佩服得五体投地,也见到他对尼采哲学的大胆阐述,尽管写的是马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸,却是可以在一定程度上看作杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦自己的体会的。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>那时的美国文学被中西部的道德所左右,文学作品所描写的大体总是中产阶级的生活,善行自会受到报偿,恶行总会受到惩罚,文学家只描写人生的愉快面,对于粗暴严厉的现实避而不谈。杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦却决心按照托尔斯泰在俄国,莫泊桑在法国,吉卜林在英国的榜样进行文学的现实主义革命,把只能满足高级客厅需要的文学变为普通人喜闻乐见的文学。他读英、法、俄、德各国名家的文学作品,还读各国的文学理论,寻求思想的解放。他最崇拜的作家是英国的斯蒂文森和吉卜林。吉卜林曾获得诺贝尔奖,是个现实主义的文学家,他的印度丛林故事极为动人。我们从杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的作品,尤其是他的阿拉斯加小说和南海小说,如《蛮荒的召唤》里可以明显地看到吉卜林的影子。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>1900年,杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的第一本小说集《狼子》出版,立即为他获得了巨大的声誉和相当优厚的收入,他原可以在成功与安定的环境里去继续从事写作的,可是他不是个安分的人,他血管里燃烧着火焰,总是渴望着沸腾的生活。</FONT><FONT size=2>1902年,他接受了美国新闻社的委派到南非去采访布尔战争,到了英国,报社却来电,不让他去了。但他并没有就此结束英国之行,而是改弦更张,在伦敦进行了新的冒险,去发现新的写作天地。
他买了几套破旧的衣服、一双破鞋和一顶污秽的便帽,以流落英伦的美国水手身分住进了伦敦的贫民窟:东区。那是大英帝国最豪华的城市伦敦的另一面,非常可怕的一面。疾病、失望和死亡是那儿的居民的日常伴侣,生活污秽得令人窒息。他发现了一个可怕的现实:英国的农村年复一年地把大量壮健的生命输入这里,而这些生命到第三代上就已经绝灭。<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>随时有四五十万人在叫做伦敦的这个社会陷坑里悲惨地死亡。<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>他说。他在东区贫民窟住了三个月,在那儿读了几百本关于它的小册子。书籍和政府报告,访问了无数男男女女,拍了许多照片;他排过领救济面包的长队,住过济贫院,睡过街道和公园,看到了人们在肮脏不堪的生活里挣扎和死亡。回到美国他出版了他的作品:《深渊里的人们》。这本书带给他的经济收入并不高,却让他在美国的社会主义者之间名声大振。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>1904年新年,日俄之战已经迫在眉睫,许多杂志和通讯社都忙着派记者去采访。杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦也接受了赫斯特报系的聘请去了远东。他来到日本,看出了日本政府故意留难各国记者的打算,便悄悄一个人去了长崎,想搭上一艘开往朝鲜的船到前线去,却被日本警察当作俄国间谍抓了起来。释放后他又搭了一艘小汽艇到了朝鲜的釜山。汽艇上没有白种入的食物,也无法遮风蔽雨,他只能在寒冷的露天甲板上睡觉。到了釜山,他千方百计弄到了一条没有篷的本地船,雇了三个不会说英语的朝鲜人帮忙,靠自己驾船的本领驶进了黄海,沿着海岸行驶。他在零下十四度的严寒和风涛里航行了六天六夜,终于到达了仁川。这时他已遍体鳞伤,脚、手指和耳朵都冻坏了。但他稍事休整之后又出发了。这回是骑马旅行,连续几个星期的马背急行军把他带到了平壤,那已是当时一切战地记者所能到达的最北之点,在那里他第二次被日本人投入监狱。出狱后他来到距离战线只有四十英里的地方,从那儿发回了一篇又一篇的报道和许多照片,完成了大部分记者无法完成的任务,又因故再度受到被捕的威胁,直到引起美国总统的干预,才得以脱身。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>即使在他的作品受到普遍欢迎、收入大大增加之后,杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦仍然不安于平静的生活。1906年,他决定自己建造一艘船去环游世界。他准备经过夏威夷、新西兰、澳大利亚、菲律宾、日本、中国,再到印度、红海、地中海、黑海、波罗的海,越过大西洋到纽约,然后从南美绕合恩角,回到旧金山。他要一一拜访沿途的名城,预计旅行七年。但他并不是一个好的理财家,他的造船活动几乎成了一个笑话。那船计划花七千元,却让他花了好几万元,而且毛病很多。他无可奈何,仍然驾着它出发了。可他只勉强把那船驾驶到夏威夷,便不得不开始修理,修好后又非常费力地开到澳大利亚,便只好把它用三千元卖掉,结束了航行。不过,在那次航行里他仍然创造了惊人的业绩。他曾驾驶那艘不像话的船用六十天工夫从夏威夷直航马克萨斯,而《太平洋航运指南》却曾指出,由于赤道海流和东南贸易风的影响,那里的海流异常复杂,从来没有人曾经驾船通过过,但是杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦却驾驶着他那勉强修复的船,经过九死一生,染上怪病,终于通过了。在那次长达一年半的航行中地勾勒出了《铁蹄》的轮廓,写完了《马丁。伊甸》的初稿,后者的好些情节,比如麻风寨故事的灵感还是他在夏威夷的几个麻风寨停留时得到的。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>成名之后他做过几次演讲旅行。在那时的美国,社会主义是很犯忌的,但社会主义者杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦对自己的观点却总直言不讳。他在加州大学大讲其社会主义革命,受到强烈反对,却得到主张言论自由的校长的保护。他到商人俱乐部大讲其社会主义革命,把1905年俄国革命杀死过几个沙皇官吏的革命者称作自己的弟兄,引起了轩然大波,第二天就受到各报的围攻,报纸上出现了愤怒的社论,说<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦把俄国杀入犯称作弟兄<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。他在耶鲁大学发表题目为《革命》的演说时,用经济的解剖刀把资本主义解剖了一个小时,最后宣称:<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>工人阶级的七百万人说:他们就要使全体的工人阶级联合起来,夺取政权。<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>他的报告受到了热烈的欢迎,虽然听众中真正赞成他的理论的人寥寥无几。因为他的社会主义信仰,他曾被提名做过社会党奥克兰市市长候选人,后来甚至还做过社会党美国总统候选入。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦就是这样的性格。他,生气勃勃,一身丈夫气,喜欢粗扩、强烈的生活。他喜欢叱咤风云,每有斗争常常斗到极限。他把冒险中的困难当作享受,把拓荒中的传奇性遭遇当作欢乐。就是在他如日中天的富裕日子里,他的生活也总是充满冒险的。他买地产,办牧场,种树木,修建豪华的新居,招待宾客,过着沸腾的生活。但他却是个蹩脚的企业家。他办的林场牧场总是失败,尽管他的稿费收入极高,却总入不敷出。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的死至今是个谜。1916年五1月对日,星期二,杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦计划第二天去纽约,而且打算途中绕道去看看芝加哥赛牲会,买一些良种牛,但是那天晚上他却服用了过量的吗啡,死去了。他桌上有个本子,上面写了些计算药量的数字。那时他害着尿毒症,但医生认为把尿毒症看作他的死因是不能叫人信服的。那么只有两种解释:自杀,或是计算药量错误。从他白天的安排看来,不像是自杀;但那么重要的药量计算竟会出错也叫人难以接受,那时他才四十岁,还远远不到昏聩的年龄。不过,如若说他是自杀也不是没有道理的。那几年的生活越来越令他烦恼。他和妻子离了婚,但发现新的妻子其实具有原来的妻子同样的毛病;而他钟爱的女儿却爱着她的母亲,和他疏远;朋友们因为财富而背叛他;他新修的阔绰的别墅<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>狼舍<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>突然被火烧掉了,给他带来了大笔债务;他种植的四十万株树苗全死去了;他牧场的良种马和猪牛羊也陆续死光了。他心力交瘁,从而引发了许多旧病,其中最困扰他的是尿毒症。心理上的极端孤独,生理上的巨大痛苦使他借酒浇愁,却越来越沉溺在酒精中,难以自拔。也许那天晚上他突然像他自己笔下的马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸一样感到太疲倦,太需要解脱,于是服下了过量的吗啡,悄然脱离了苦海,谁知道!<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>2.杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的五十多部作品大体可以分作三大类:描写在大自然中生活的人的作品,描写在城市中生活的人的作品,和论文。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>他描写在大自然里生活的入的作品又可分为两类:极地小说和海洋小说。极地小说最有名的有三个小说集:《狼子》,《热爱生命》(Loveof Life,1907)和《丢脸》(Lost Face,191O);还有长篇小说《燃烧的戴莱特》(Burning Daylig ht,191))和《蹩脚</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>贝路》(Smoke Bellew,191));此外有他别具一格的狗小说《蛮荒的召唤》(The Call of the Wild,1903)和《白獠牙》(The White Fang,1906)。《燃烧的戴莱特》的主角是个孔武有力的淘金者,在获得大量黄金之后却怀着理想主义的情绪全部放弃了;《蹩脚<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>贝路》的主角是个蹩脚记者,在淘金生活中历尽艰险。这些小说描写了北极附近严寒地带的人们在最严酷的环境下的艰苦生活和撼人心魂的斗争。例如短篇小说《生火》写一个淘金者在零下七十度的旷野里用各种办法生火终于失败而死的故事,很为悲壮。两本狗小说一本写文明世界的狗回到蛮荒,一本写经过凶残训练的狗回到文明,都是从狗的本性出发,反映人类感情对狗的影响的;写的虽是狗,反映的却不仅是狗,而包括了周围的人的思想、感情和性格。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>他的海洋小说包括了小说集《南海故事》(1911)和长篇小说《海狼》(Sea Walf,1911)等,还有一个狗故事《群岛猎犬杰瑞》(Jerry of the lslands,1917)。《南海故事》的南海指的是南太平洋,包括了夏威夷群岛及广大的海域及岛屿。小说集仿佛是南太平洋上著居民的展览会和当地风光的画廊。《海浪》写的是捕猎海豹的船只</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>幽灵号<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>船长拉尔森的冒险故事,他最后因为得了肺癌被遗弃在荒岛上,而被他从海上救起的记者和女诗人却回到了文明社会</FONT><FONT size=2>.《群岛猎犬杰瑞》写一头小猎犬落入食人生番的手里又逃出,回到文明世界的故事。
杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦描写城市的作品有著名的长篇幻想小说《铁蹄》(TheIron Heel,1908)、报告文学《深渊里的人们》(The People in the Abyss,1903),小说《拳赛》(The Game,1905)、幻想小说《亚当以前》(BeforeAdam,1906)、《马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸》、及《约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>巴利科恩》(JohnBarleycorn,1913)等。《铁蹄》预言了美国的金融寡头将组织成为法西斯机构<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>铁蹄<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,控制全国,进行军事寡头统治和特务统治,而社会主义者只好与德国的工人阶级联合举行总罢工,以反对美国发起的对德战争,并用以暴力对暴力的形式进行地下斗争,最后男主角埃佛哈不幸牺牲,记载故事的文稿也便中断。文稿及以脚注的形式预言法西斯组织<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>铁蹄<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>要到三百年后才能被推翻,那时人类也就进入幸福的集体主义时代。《约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>巴利科恩》是以禁酒为主题的小说,也带有自传性质。《拳赛》写一个拳击手的悲剧,拳击手要他的情人去看他比赛,用以消除她对拳击的成见,却在拳击时被重伤致死。《亚当以前》是另一本幻想小说,是一种把达尔文和华莱士的理论通俗化的尝试,写的是冰河期中期的原始人类的故事。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>对杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的作品有人评论为:干净利落,生气勃勃,健康乐观;也有人认为是文明的头脑与原始的强力的结合,是科学进化论的喉舌,代表了朝气和勇敢。杰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦最擅长的是对于原始暴力和个人奋斗的描写,这在他的极地小说和海洋小说中表现得最为明显。《马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸》里也有一些原始暴力的描写,比如那场从六岁打到十七岁,历时十一年之久的苦斗就是一个例子。而马丁<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伊甸的整个历史其实也是一篇惊心动魄的个人肉搏史。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>他的论文有论文集《阶级战争》(The War of the Classes,1905)、《人类去向》(The Human Drift,1917)和《革命》等。他的论文也像小说一样受到欢迎,这是令他的出版商都感到惊讶的。例如《阶级战争》在一年之内就曾三次再版。美国是个敌视社会主义的国家,但杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦的宣传阶级战争的文集竟会这样畅销,说明了他的作品有惊人的魅力。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>杰克</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>伦敦曾是世界上名气最大的作家之一。他的作品大多出版不久就被译成各国文字出版,包括法文、俄文。德又、瑞典文、丹麦文、荷兰文、西班牙文、意大利文、希伯来文等,因为意识形态的关系,他的作品在俄国和前苏联最受欢迎,列宁就很欣赏他的《铁蹄》和《热爱生命》。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>美国传记小说家伊尔文</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>斯通在他的《马背上的水手》里称他是美国无产阶级文学之父。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p><FONT size=2> </FONT></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>The Sea-Wolf/海狼 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>体裁:长篇小说</FONT>
<FONT size=2>写作时间:1903年
人物介绍:Wolf Larsen/海狼拉尔森,the schooner Ghost/魔鬼号船长;Hamphrey Van Weyden/亨甫莱 凡 卫登,文学批评家;Maud Brewster/默德 布利斯特,女诗人<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>全文阅读:The Sea-Wolf/海狼 <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>内容简介:一艘渡船在旧金山湾失事,三十五岁的文学评论家</FONT><FONT size=2>Hamphrey被捕海豹船"魔鬼号"船长海狼Larsen救起。由于船上大副的死亡,缺少人手的Larsen强迫Hamphrey在船上做茶房。Hamphrey目睹了水手和猎人们的争斗,Larsen的冷酷无情。比一般水手都强壮的Larsen以自己的铁拳统治着这名符其实的"魔鬼号"。然而Hamphrey也发现,Larsen也并非全无头脑,只是他那抛开任何微小的利他行为,只想到像酵母一样,大的吞掉小的,强的吞掉弱的,以获得个人的持续生存的人生理论是Hamphrey这样满脑子理想、情操一类事物的文明人所无法接受的。Hamphrey在船上学到了航海知识,身体也强壮起来。
魔鬼号偶然救起了在轮船失事中幸存的Maud Brewster。Hamphrey心中燃起了爱的火花,他终于和Maud找机会逃走,由于偏离了航线,不得不在一个海豹聚集的小岛上暂时安顿下来,过了一段艰苦的努力生存的日子。众叛亲离的Larsen和魔鬼号也撞上了这个小岛。船上的水手和猎人不堪Larsen的压迫,又禁不住有人故意的金钱诱惑,全部抛开魔鬼号去为Larsen的敌人工作。Larsen也不再是那个身体强壮,坚不可摧的样子了,经常的头痛,可能是头部的瘤造成了他的迅速虚弱甚至失明。Hamphrey和Maud努力将魔鬼号修好,其间受到Larsen多次阻挠。船终于修好了,Larsen则出现了偏瘫,生命之火慢慢地熄灭了。 Hamphrey与Maud将Larsen海葬,不久之后,他们获救了。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>《海狼》在直到1999年的八十多年间中,曾十几次被搬上银幕,杰克伦敦在1913年的版本中,出演一位水手。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>读书笔记:<p></p></FONT></P>《海狼》从纯文学的角度来讲,并不是一部非常成功的作品,海狼拉尔森是一个怪人,有强壮的身体和灵活的头脑,以野蛮人的方式与野蛮人欧斗,又以文明人的方式与文明人交谈。他的头脑中满是野蛮的思想,他读文明书只是为了从中找出可以支持自己观点的论据。情节上,几乎没有什么波动,只是讲船上争来斗去的琐事,尤其后期爱情的出现是那么突兀,与书前半部硬冷的基调完全不同。亨甫莱对拉尔森态度的变化也很奇怪,而且没有预兆,完全为爱情而爱情,使亨甫莱十足像个傻瓜。还有那莫名其妙的头疼加失明,为无坚可摧的拉尔森的失败找到了借口。
JL大多并不以情节取胜,他更善于细致刻划某一场景、画面或短小的一串动作,而不是错综复杂的人物关系和立体丰满的人物形象。
此书有诸多不足,但仍然值得一读。它谈到那永远无人可解的难题:"人为什么要活着?"按拉尔森的说法,"生命像是酵母,酶,一种活动的东西......大吞小才可以维持他们的活动,强食弱才能保持他们的力量。""(水手)为了要吃要喝而活动,因为可以继续活动,就是这么样。他们为肚子而生活,为生活而吃饱肚子,这是一个循环。"
拉尔森有一套很奇怪的理论,亨甫莱称他为唯物主义者,而拉尔森的唯物主义不仅不相信上帝、永生的存在,甚至不相信人的精神。在他的眼里,人与世界上千千万万动物一样,纯粹是为生存而生存,什么理想、道德,一切不能用来补充力量的空谈都是屁话。
对于生与死,拉尔森秉持着JL一贯的态度,只不过表达方式有所变化:"蠕动是卑劣的,但是停止蠕动,像是泥土顽石,是不堪设想的......生命本身就是不如意,但是向前望到死亡,更是不如意。"--说句题外话,我无法相信持此种观点的JL会自杀,当然人的观点是可能变化的。
对拉尔森最好的总结是书中这句原话,"我相信他十足是个原人,生晚了几千年,或者说许多代,在这文明达到高峰的世纪,是一种时代错误。
不知不觉由拉尔森想到原始与文明的对立。文明使我们大多数人在作为一个自然人的层面上,变得柔弱,随着大脑的高度发达,与工具的不断发展,人类已经很退化了。而且文明不可避免地夹杂着虚伪、欺诈。原始与文明,到底怎样是进化,怎样是退化呢?
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:14:38|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>Native Americans</B><FONT size=2>Native Americans were living in </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place>North America</st1:place> for many hundreds of years before Europeans reached the continent. For a long time white people called them Indians. Today, many people do not like this name since it is based on a mistake: it was given to the people living in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>Americas</st1:place></st1:country-region> by Christopher *Columbus who, when he arrived there, thought he had discovered <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Instead, people prefer to use the term Native Americans. There are also native peoples living in *<st1:State><st1:place>Alaska</st1:place></st1:State> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>, e.g. *Inuits and Aleuts, but they are separate groups and are not called Native Americans.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
</FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>Early contact with Europeans
</FONT></B><FONT size=2>In *Pre-Columbian North America there were many tribes who lived by hunting animals and gathering plants. Many of the tribes moved from one place to another according to the season and what food was available. Most of what is known about Native Americans dates from the time when they came into contact with Europeans.
The first place in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> where Europeans settled permanently was *<st1:place><st1:City>Jamestown</st1:City>, <st1:State>Virginia</st1:State></st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>, founded in 1607. At first Native Americans were positive about the Europeans and were happy to have the many new things they brought, e.g. metal cooking pots, cloth and guns. But the Europeans also introduced diseases that Native Americans had no resistance to, so many became ill and died. They also brought alcohol, the effects of which Native Americans did not know. Some Europeans took advantage of this by getting them drunk and then paying low prices for their goods.
The worst problem for Native Americans, which lasted into the late 20th century, was that the new settlers wanted their land. To native Americans owning land was a strange idea. Tribes moved around as they pleased and shared land with any other tribe that was friendly. They did not understand that a person might believe a piece of land was theirs, or that they would try to keep others from using it. The settlers, on the other hand, assumed that they would take control of <st1:place>North America</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2> and used all means to do this, including making agreements, which they usually did not keep, tricking Native Americans into selling land cheaply, and taking it by military force. Native American chiefs like *Sitting Bull, *Tecumseh and *Geronimo fought against the settlers.
As Whites began moving west, Native American tribes had to be moved on. Some were forced to go to other parts of <st1:place>North America</st1:place>, to areas very different from the ones they were used to. The *Trail of Tears was one of many terrible examples: in the cold winter of 18389 17 000 *Cherokees had to move from their land in the south-east to what is now *<st1:State><st1:place>Oklahoma</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2> and more than 4 000 died. The government promised tribes that if they agreed to stay in one part of the country they could keep that land forever. But the promises lasted only until Americans discovered that the land they had given them was good for farming or had gold.
Whites have explained this behaviour in different ways. When the Indians fought and killed white people they said that this proved that Native Americans were wild and had to be controlled. People also believed that the Native Americans were wasting good land by not developing it. In the 19th century Americans believed in *manifest destiny, meaning that they thought God wanted them to occupy the whole continent. They also believed that it was better for the Native Americans to learn to live like white people and tried to teach them Christianity. Many Native American children, including the athlete Jim *Thorpe, were taken away from their tribe and sent to schools where they were not allowed to speak their own language.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>Native American languages</FONT></B><FONT size=2>Before Europeans arrived in </FONT><st1:place><FONT size=2>North America</FONT></st1:place><FONT size=2> there were over 300 Native American languages. Some have now died out, and of the 250 or so remaining many are spoken only by a few older people. Other languages, like Cherokee, are more widely spoken. Most Native Americans speak English, some as their first language and others as their second.
Native American languages have added many words to English, though the meaning of a word has often been changed. Teepees are a kind of tent, *wampum belts were made of beads and since the belts had great <I normal?>value</I> Europeans used wampum to mean 'money'. Moccasins, a kind of shoe, are today worn by people all over the world. Many Native American words describe the things they name. For example, the Asakiwaki tribe's name means 'people of the yellow earth', and the Cherokees' name for themselves, Ani-Yun'wiya, means 'the leading people'. Indian names for Whites included 'people greedily grasping for land'.
Many American place names have their roots in Native American languages. *<st1:State><st1:place>Ohio</st1:place></st1:State>, for instance, is a Native American name, and the names of many of its towns and cities, such as <st1:City><st1:place>Chillicothe</st1:place></st1:City> and <st1:City><st1:place>Sandusky</st1:place></st1:City>, and the lakes <st1:place>Scioto</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2> and Olentangy, are of Native American origin.
Native Americans today
According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a part of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> government, there are now about 550 tribes. These include well-known groups like the *Navajo and *Sioux, and less famous tribes like the Cayuse. The number of Native Americans living in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> is about 1.2 million.
Almost a million live on reservations, areas of land that the government has allowed them to keep as their own. Native Americans are US citizens, and have the rights and responsibilities of any <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> citizen. However, reservations have their own governments and police forces and Native Americans pay different taxes. They also have the right to hunt and fish where and when they like, while other Americans have to get a licence.
On or off the reservations Native Americans find it difficult to live the traditional life. Activities of other Americans affect the way they live. Building dams across a river, for example, can affect the numbers of fish living there, so that even though Native Americans have the right to fish they may not be able to catch anything. Away from the reservations, many Native Americans find that their culture is very different from that of white people and have difficulty adapting.
Poverty is a serious problem. About 37% of people who live on reservations are unemployed, compared with 6% of the general population. Many tribes try to bring in money from outside. Some sell rights to search for oil on their reservation, others use the fact that the reservation makes its own rules to open casinos where people from outside can come and gamble. Gambling is illegal in most parts of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> and many Americans want it to remain so, but it makes a lot of money for the tribes. This brings Native Americans, once again, into conflict with white Americans.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2><B normal?>Native Americans in the popular imagination
</B>An American tradition dating back to early times is *Thanksgiving. When the English arrived in <st1:City><st1:place>Jamestown</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2> many died during the long cold winter, but in the following spring Native Americans showed them what local foods they could eat. In the autumn, well-prepared for the winter, settlers and Native Americans had a special dinner together, the first Thanksgiving, to thank God and the Native Americans for all the food they had.
Another story describes how the Native American princess *Pocahontas saved the life of John *Smith, the leader in <st1:City><st1:place>Jamestown</st1:place></st1:City>, when her father, *Powhatan, wanted to kill him. She later married another Englishman, John Rolfe, and went to <st1:country-region><st1:place>England</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> with him. The story of Pocahontas is widely known and many Americans are proud to have her as an ancestor.
But Native Americans were more often seen by white settlers as the enemy. *Westerns, i.e. films and books about the *Wild West, use the threat from Indians as their central theme. In this context Native Americans are still called 'Indians'. Children often play 'cowboys and Indians' and pretend to kill each other. When *Buffalo Bill, began touring the US with his Wild West show, the chief Sitting Bull was one of many Native Americans in it, and many people went to see this former great enemy.
Many Americans have an image of a 'typical Indian', a chief who lived in a teepee with his squaw (= wife), smoked a peace pipe after signing a treaty with the white man (whom he called pale face), sent smoke signals to communicate with people far away, and spoke broken English full of colourful expressions such as 'big heap wampum' (a lot of money) and 'speaks with forked tongue' (is lying). Most of these ideas have some basis in Native American culture, but it is wrong to put them all together and believe that that was how Native Americans lived.
Americans make such mistakes because they have little interest in Native Americans. Having succeeded in pushing them out of the way onto reservations, most Americans ignore them. This may be because the Native Americans who are left are living proof of a hard truth: America wants to be, and often is, a land where everyone has a chance and where the government behaves fairly and honestly to all, but this America is built on land stolen from the people who lived there first. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><P><FONT size=2></FONT></P></B><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>George Washington (1732-99)</FONT></B><FONT size=2>the first US *President (1789-97), who had led its army to success in the *American Revolution. He is called 'the Father of His Country'. The *Continental Congress placed him in charge of the American forces in 1775. Although his army had a difficult and dangerous winter at *</FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place>Valley Forge</st1:place>, General Washington led them to several victories, including the final <st1:City><st1:place>Battle</st1:place></st1:City> of *<st1:place>Yorktown</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>. He later gave his important approval for the *American Constitution and was elected in 1789 as the country's first president. He supported a strong central government but disliked political party arguments. He was elected a second time, but refused to stand as a candidate for a third time and returned to his home at *Mount Vernon.
Americans have always admired <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> as one of their best and most moral presidents. He is considered by many to have been the country's greatest leader and perhaps the only one who could have united the colonists during the American Revolution. Most people know the story of how as a boy he cut down his father's cherry tree and then admitted what he had done, saying, 'I cannot tell a lie.' The story may not be true but it is seen as a symbol of his honesty. <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>'s fine personal qualities and fair politics were recognized during his life, and they seem even more impressive today. His memory is honoured by the *<st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Washington</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Monument</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> and the names of the country's capital city, a state, many *counties, government buildings, schools, streets, mountains, etc, and his image appears on the dollar note and the 25-cent coin. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2><st1:place><st1:City>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State>DC</st1:State></st1:place> (<st1:place><st1:City>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State>District of Columbia</st1:State></st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>)
the capital city of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region>, whose area covers the *<st1:State><st1:place>District of Columbia</st1:place></st1:State>. The place was chosen by George *<st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> in 1790, and since 1800 the main departments of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> government have been there. It is known for its historical monuments and important buildings, including the *Capitol, the *White House(1), the *Supreme Court, the *National Archives, the *Library of Congress, the *Smithsonian Institution, the *National Gallery of Art and the *<st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Kennedy</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Center</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>. About 66% of <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2>'s population are *African Americans.
<st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Washington</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Monument</st1:PlaceType></st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>a tall, thin monument on The *Mall(2) in *</FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place><st1:City>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State>DC</st1:State></st1:place>, built to honour the memory of George *<st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>. It is 555 feet/169 metres high and made of white marble. Tourists can climb the 898 steps to the top, from which there are fine views of the city. The Monument took 40 years to build and was completed in 1888. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>jazz
Jazz is one of the greatest forms of music originating in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>. The names of its stars, who are mostly *African Americans, are known around the world. Most people have heard of stars like Ella *Fitzgerald, 'Count' *Basie, 'Duke' *Ellington and Louis *Armstrong. Wynton *Marsalis, who plays in the traditional style, is the best-known jazz musician today.
Jazz was begun in the *South by African Americans. Many of its rhythms came from the work songs and spirituals (= religious songs) of black slaves. <st1:Street><st1:address>New Orleans street</st1:address></st1:Street> bands first made jazz popular. Early forms of jazz created at the beginning of the 20th century were *ragtime and the *blues. Ragtime musicians included the singer 'Jelly Roll' *Morton and the composer and piano player Scott *<st1:City><st1:place>Joplin</st1:place></st1:City>. Famous blues singers included Bessie *Smith and later Billie *<st1:place>Holiday</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>. *Dixieland developed from ragtime and the blues and made a feature of improvisation (= making up the music as it is being played), especially on the trumpet and saxophone. Dixieland stars included Louis Armstrong and Sidney Bechet.
In the 1920s many African Americans moved north, taking jazz with them, and *<st1:City><st1:place>Chicago</st1:place></st1:City> and <st1:State><st1:place>New York</st1:place></st1:State> became centres for the music. This was the beginning of the big band era. In the 1930s swing music came into fashion and people danced to jazz. Radio and the new recording industry helped to make it even more popular. The big bands were led by Basie, Ellington, Woody *Herman, Glenn *Miller and 'the King of Swing', Benny *Goodman. In the 1940s there were new styles such as *bebop, developed by 'Dizzy' *Gillespie, Charlie 'Bird' *Parker and Thelonious *Monk. Freer forms like progressive jazz developed in the 1950s with stars including Stan *Getz and Dave *Brubeck. Cool jazz followed in the 1960s, led by Getz and Miles *<st1:City><st1:place>Davis</st1:place></st1:City>. More recent styles have included funky jazz, jazz-rock and hip-hop jazz. Many jazz clubs, like the *Cotton Club, have now closed but others, like Preservation Hall in *<st1:City><st1:place>New Orleans</st1:place></st1:City>, and Birdland in *<st1:City><st1:place>Manhattan</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2>, remain.
In <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> jazz attracts a small but enthusiastic audience. The height of its popularity was in the 1940s and 1950s, when large crowds gathered to hear big bands. British jazz has always been heavily influenced by US jazz. In the 1960s pop and rock music replaced jazz as the music of the young generation. There are now few jazz bands, although smaller combos (= groups) continue to play a wide range of trad (= traditional), bebop, cool and avant-garde jazz. The most famous British jazz musicians have included Johnny *Dankworth and Cleo *Laine, George Melly, Humphrey *Lyttelton and Courtney *Pine. The home of jazz in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> is Ronnie *Scott's club in <st1:City><st1:place>London</st1:place></st1:City>. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><P><FONT size=2></FONT></P><p><H1 0pt? 0in><FONT face=新宋体 size=3>MAYA</FONT></H1><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>1.Maya Culture</B><FONT size=2>The Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place>Mesoamerica</st1:place>. Originating in the Yucat<FONT face="Times New Roman">á</FONT>n around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Guatemala</st1:place></st1:country-region>, northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Belize</st1:place></st1:country-region> and western <st1:country-region><st1:place>Honduras</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>. Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya developed astronomy, calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing. The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools. They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rain forest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizeable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater. The Maya were equally skilled as weavers and potters, and cleared routes through jungles and swamps to foster extensive trade networks with distant peoples.
Around 300 B.C., the Maya adopted a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings. This civilization developed into highly structured kingdoms during the Classic period, A.D. 200-900. Their society consisted of many independent states, each with a rural farming community and large urban sites built around ceremonial centres. It started to decline around A.D. 900 when - for reasons which are still largely a mystery - the southern Maya abandoned their cities. When the northern Maya were integrated into the Toltec society by A.D. 1200, the Maya dynasty finally came to a close, although some peripheral centres continued to thrive until the Spanish Conquest in the early sixteenth century.
Maya history can be characterized as cycles of rise and fall: city-states rose in prominence and fell into decline, only to be replaced by others. It could also be described as one of continuity and change, guided by a religion that remains the foundation of their culture. For those who follow the ancient Maya traditions, the belief in the influence of the cosmos on human lives and the necessity of paying homage to the gods through rituals continues to find expression in a modern hybrid Christian-Maya faith.
Cosmology and Religion
The ancient Maya believed in recurring cycles of creation and destruction and thought in terms of eras lasting about 5,200 modern years. The current cycle is believed by the Maya to have begun in either 3114 B.C. or 3113 B.C. of our calendar, and is expected to end in either A.D. 2011 or 2012.
Maya cosmology is not easy to reconstruct from our current knowledge of their civilization. It seems apparent, however, that the Maya believed Earth to be flat and four-cornered. Each corner was located at a cardinal point and had a colour <I normal?>value</I>: red for east, white for north, black for west, and yellow for south. At the centre was the colour green.
Some Maya also believed that the sky was multi-layered and that it was supported at the corners by four gods of immense physical strength called "Bacabs". Other Maya believed that the sky was supported by four trees of different colours and species, with the green ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, at the centre.
Earth in its flat form was thought by the Maya to be the back of a giant crocodile, resting in a pool of water lilies. The crocodile's counterpart in the sky was a double-headed serpent - a concept probably based on the fact that the Maya word for "sky" is similar to the word for "snake". In hieroglyphics, the body of the sky-serpent is marked not only with its own sign of crossed bands, but also those of the Sun, the Moon, Venus and other celestial bodies.
Heaven was believed to have 13 layers, and each layer had its own god. Uppermost was the muan bird, a kind of screech-owl. The Underworld had nine layers, with nine corresponding Lords of the Night. The Underworld was a cold, unhappy place and was believed to be the destination of most Maya after death. Heavenly bodies such as the Sun, the Moon, and Venus, were also thought to pass through the Underworld after they disappeared below the horizon every evening.
Very little is known about the Maya pantheon. The Maya had a bewildering number of gods, with at least 166 named deities. This is partly because each of the gods had many aspects. Some had more than one sex; others could be both young and old; and every god representing a heavenly body had a different Underworld face, which appeared when the god "died" in the evening<BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>2.The Maya Calendar:</B><FONT size=2>The Maya kept time with a combination of several cycles that meshed together to mark the movement of the sun, moon and Venus. The Maya calendar in its final form probably dates from about the 1st century B.C., and may originate with the Olmec civilization. It is extremely accurate, and the calculations of Maya priests were so precise that their calendar correction is 10,000th of a day more exact than the standard calendar the world uses today.
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex and intricate. They used 20-day months, and had two calendar years: the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab. These two calendars coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a "bundle" and meant the same to the Maya as our century does to us.
The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names. Each of the day names is represented by a god who carries time across the sky, thus marking the passage of night and day. The day names are Imix, Ik, </FONT><st1:place><FONT size=2><st1:City>Akbal</st1:City>, <st1:State>Kan</st1:State></FONT></st1:place><FONT size=2>, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. Some of these are animal gods, such as Chuen (the dog), and Ahau (the eagle), and archaeologists have pointed out that the Maya sequence of animals can be matched in similar sequence to the lunar zodiacs of many East and Southeast Asian civilizations. <BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>3.Writing and Hieroglyphics:</B><B normal?></B><FONT size=2>The Maya writing system is considered by archaeologists to be the most sophisticated system ever developed in <st1:place>Mesoamerica</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>.
The Maya wrote using 800 individual signs or glyphs, paired in columns that read together from left to right and top to bottom. Maya glyphs represented words or syllables that could be combined to form any word or concept in the Mayan language, including numbers, time periods, royal names, titles, dynastic events, and the names of gods, scribes, sculptors, objects, buildings, places, and food. Hieroglyphic inscriptions were either carved in stone and wood on Maya monuments and architecture, or painted on paper, plaster walls and pottery.
The unit of the Maya writing system is the glyphic cartouche, which is equivalent to the words and sentences of a modern language. Maya cartouches included at least three or four glyphs and as many as fifty. Each cartouche contained various glyphs, as well as prefixes and suffixes. There is no Maya alphabet.
Maya writing is difficult to interpret for a number of reasons. First, glyphs do not represent just sounds or ideas, they can represent both, making it difficult to know how each glyph or cartouche should be read. In addition, many Maya glyphs can have more than one meaning, and many Maya concepts can be written in more than one way. Numbers, for example, can be written with Maya numerical symbols or with the picture of a god associated with that number, or a combination of the two. Some glyphs represent more than one phonetic sound, while also representing an idea. This means that a single idea can be written in many different ways. For example, the name of the <st1:City><st1:place>Palenque</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2> ruler, Pacal, whose name literally means "Hand-shield", appears sometimes as a picture of a hand-shield, sometimes phonetically as pa-cal-la, and at other times as a combination of picture symbols and phonetics.
(</FONT><a href="http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/" target="_blank" ><FONT size=2>http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/</FONT></A><FONT size=2>) <P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal">霓虹灯</B>
A neon light is the sort of light you see used in advertising signs. These signs are made of long, narrow glass tubes, and these tubes are often bent into all sorts of shapes. The tube of a neon light can spell out a word, for example. These tubes emit light in different colors.
The idea behind a neon light is simple. Inside the glass tube there is a gas like neon, argon or krypton at low pressure. At both ends of the tube there are metal electrodes. When you apply a high voltage to the electrodes, the neon gas ionizes, and electrons flow through the gas. These electrons excite the neon atoms and cause them to emit light that we can see. Neon emits red light when energized in this way. Other gases emit other colors. <p></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p> </p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal">羊皮书制手抄本 </B>
公元100年前后,古希腊人将纸莎草纸裁成单页,双面书写,写完后粘成类似今书本型。这种文献,史称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>手抄本<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。手抄本翻阅方便,载文量大,具备了现代书的外型,逐渐成为图书的标准形式。
公元前800年左右,中东地区帕加马人,迫于亚历山大城对纸莎草的封锁以及希腊地区两大图书馆的竞争,在公元前2世纪发明了用羊皮、牛皮制成羊皮纸的工艺。 它将绵羊、山羊、羚羊、小牛或其它动物的皮进行加工处理,弄薄后,在其上书写文字。所 形成的古文献,史称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>羊皮书<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。羊皮书最初是书卷型的,后来演变为书本型。公元前200 年前后,帕加马成为羊皮纸的生产中心,并使该技术向各地传播。尔后羊皮纸的使用风靡罗马。
羊皮纸没有纸莎草那么笨重,而且可以折叠,成为<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>羊皮书<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。公元1世纪,罗马人征服了地中海沿岸,没有建立起更大的图书馆,却建立了最大的档案管<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>Tabularium<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。罗马的诗人可以在羊皮上 <FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>发表<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>自己的作品,就是请专门的抄写手在羊皮上抄写多份并出售,尽管它在经济上并不合算。中世纪的欧洲,基督教世界里的修道院开始也使用纸莎草,后来转到使用高级的羊皮纸,而且往往有精美的插图,抄写《圣经》成为修道士的一种职业;在阿拉伯世界里,他们则用羊皮纸抄写《古兰经》。公元4世纪前后,由于羊皮纸 坚固、书写清晰,而逐渐取代纸莎草纸成为制作手抄本的材料。</P></FONT>
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:15:35|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal">美国大都市</B><BR line-break"><BR line-break"><p></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal"><FONT size=2>洛杉矶</FONT></B>
<FONT size=2>洛杉矶是美国第三大都市,位于充满阳光的西海岸。好莱坞是妇孺皆知的电影王国,狄斯耐乐园更是全球闻名的游乐园地。加州蜜橘堆积如山,而中国城则充满中国传统气氛。洛杉矶乃是生气蓬勃的美国观光胜地。
  好莱坞Hollywood 曾被誉之为"电影城",最近因为电视盛行,在该处摄制的电影也就相对减少。不过,哥伦比亚、派拉蒙等著名电影公司仍在继续拍片。好莱坞的主要街道是SunsetBlvd.与HollywoodBlvd.街道两旁是电影际与高级的商店,极尽繁华之能事。好莱坞有一座戏院Grauman'sChineseTheater,几乎所有著名的影星都印下他(她)们的手印或足印。HollywoodBowl则因在星光下露天演奏交乡曲而闻名。HollywoodBemetery是著名影星的墓地,都值得一游。
  环球影城UniversalCityStudios 是世界上最大的摄影棚,其中有人工瀑布,人工湖,拍摄电影用的各种道具布景、服装等等。这个摄影棚对外开放,只需购买参观券就能入内亲眼欣赏电影的情形。
  莫维兰蜡像馆MovielandWaxMuseum 馆中有著名影星的蜡像,和若干著名电影镜头的模型。
  比华利山BeverlyHills 电影中经常出现的好莱坞西侧的高级住宅区。著名影星、名道演及富豪在那里都拥有自己的住宅或别墅。
  魔积山MagicMountain 是一个令人紧张刺激的游乐场所,园地内有40多种乘坐的工具,可以自由搭乘,令人油然产生新奇之感。
  迪斯耐乐园Disneyland 全球闻名的迪斯耐乐园,设在距洛杉矶40公里的Anaheim。迪斯耐乐园建于1955年,乐园占地150平方英尺,如欲窥其全貌,得花两天时间。
  园内主要设施计有"童话世界"、"明日世界"、"拓荒世界"、"冒险世界"、"纽奥良广场"等。各种娱乐活动或令人赏心悦目,或使人紧张刺激,是每一个游玩过迪斯耐乐园的人都觉得留连忘返的地方。
  著名的卡通、如《白雪公主》等片,也是迪斯耐的产品。令人喜爱的米老鼠是迪斯耐的象征,也是一代又一代儿童的宠物。
================ <p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2><B normal">波士顿</B><B normal"><p></p></B></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>麻萨诸塞州的首府波士顿,乃是美国最早开辟的一个都市。1630年,八百名英国清教徒来到这里,建立村落,波士顿随之而产生。波士顿融合了保守与进步,在弥温历史性气氛中,逐渐发展成一个现代化工业都市。同时,设在该处的哈佛大学、麻萨诸塞理工学院、波士顿大学等最高学府,每年造就不少杰出人才,因而又以文化都市而著称。和其他美国都市有尽相同的是,它充满了欧洲的轨迹。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>彭加山纪念碑
BunkerHillMonument
1775年6月,由清莱斯科多上校指挥的独立军,被命令占据彭加山。独立军乃先攻占附近的普利兹山。普利兹山形势除要,能俯瞰波士顿全市。英军为夺回该山。曾两度猛扑,均为独立军所击退,使英军死伤达1,000人。但英军续作三度攻击,独立军终因弹尽粮绝,不支后撤。这一场激烈的战役,使人们对独立军的战力刮目相看。就在那时候,乔治</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>华盛顿被任命为独立军总司令。彭加山乃是美国独立史上最著名的一个古战场。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>老北教堂OldNorthChurch
是波士顿最古老的教堂,建于1723年。1775年4月,英军计划袭击位于波士顿郊外康可特的弹药库,事为鲍尔</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>利维拉所悉,乃于该教堂尖塔上悬挂出两盏石油灯示警,自己连夜骑马前往康可特和雷克辛顿方面报讯。雷克辛顿方面民兵(独立军前身)得以从容迎击翌晨出现的英军。这一仗揭开了美国独立战分的序幕。坚立在教堂前的骑马铜像,即为建有殊动的鲍尔<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>利维拉。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>法尼尔厅FaneuilHall
这一建筑物原由彼得</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>法尼尔兴建,作为市场之用,但在独立战争爆发前,波士顿市民即利用这一建筑物,以常集会,讨论独立与自由等大问题。因而获得<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>自由的摇篮<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></FONT><FONT size=2>CradleofLiberty的别称。现在,市民们仍习惯性利用二楼大厅举行各类集会。一楼为市场,三楼则是波士顿炮兵团本部所属的博物馆。
葛兰奈莱墓地GranaryBuryingGround
过去是市区内的杂物仓库,现已变成了公园,佛兰克林双亲、历任市长,以生于1770年的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>波士顿大屠杀<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的殉难者均长眠于此墓地。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>波士顿图书馆
BostonPublicLinrary
具有意大利文艺复兴时代风格,是一个颇有来头的建筑物。精致的壁画、雕刻,以及青铜的门等均值得仔细鉴赏。馆内还收藏着古籍及珍本。创立于1895年。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>===============<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>友爱之城</FONT>
<B normal"><FONT size=2>费城<p></p></FONT></B></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>费城是美国第四大都市,随同岁月的飞逝,与工业化的进展,费城所拥有的历史性遗产,已逐渐褪色。但是在十八世纪中叶,费城却是起草与通过独立宣言的地方。而且,美利坚合众国宪法草案也在费城起草与答署。贝茜<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>罗斯在这里升起了合众国国旗。华盛顿以总统身分,在这里也流过了许多岁月。这里乃是美利坚合众国的诞生地。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>独立纪念馆IndependenceHall
建立于1732年,原为州政府,后于1776年7月,在该处发表独立宣言。其后,又在该处起草合众国宪法,从而诞生了美利坚合众国。
议事厅CongressHall
与独立纪念馆连接的建筑物。1790年到1800年为止,该处为联邦议事厅。华盛顿曾在该处被推选第二次担任总统。厅内留存历史性遗物极众。
罗斯故居BetsyRossHouse
这是设计美国国旗星条旗的罗斯夫人的老家。据说,它是1774年由华盛顿总统建议而兴建的。附近的Elfreth'sAlley和BladenCoat小路仍留存了十八世纪美国开国初期的形迹,散步其间,易兴思古幽情。
罗丹博物馆rodinMuseum
是除了法国之外,收藏名画家罗丹作品最多的一家博物馆。
宾州美术馆PennsylvaniaAcademyOfTheFineArts
创设于1801年的美国最古老的美术馆。美国美术界的杰作,几乎都收藏在该馆。
佛兰克林科技馆FranklinInstitute
为了纪念本杰明</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>佛兰克林的贡献而兴建的科学博物馆,展出运输、航空、物理、天文、化学资料。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>==============<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>汽车城</FONT>
<B normal"><FONT size=2>底特律<p></p></FONT></B></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>底特律是众所周知的美国汽车工业的王国。福特汽车公司、通用汽车公司和克莱斯勒汽车公司等世界第一流汽车公司都在这里设厂,日生产汽车。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>底特律生产的汽车,其数量占全球第一位。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>福特汽车公司的Rouge工厂
自铁块开始,至新车装配完成为止,生产过程全部自动化。汽车工业先驱者福特工厂,周一到周五,上午九时至下午三时每30分钟一次免费参观;但八、九两月间,此项免费参观停办。
通用汽车公司的Cadillac分厂
美国最高级汽车卡迪拉克牌汽车的装配工厂。免费参观旅行是周一到周五,9:30和13:30每天两次。但6月1日至10月15日间停办。
克莱斯勒公司的Chrysler&amp;Imperial装配工厂
是Chrysler和Imperial牌汽车的装配工厂。免费参观是周到到周五,9:30和13:00每天两次。
绿野村GreenfieldVillage
是汽车大王亨利</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>福特拥有的具有历史性的村庄。村内以一览图方式,介绍长达三世纪的美国的生活。在100多幢建筑物中观光者能一目了然地看到美国科学、工业、农业、政治、经济的进步过程。绿野村边是亨利<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>福特博物馆</FONT><FONT size=2>HeryFordMuseum,陈列着福特公司初期以迄现在的每一种产品,是爱好汽车者必游之地。
贝尔岛Bellelsland
底特律河上一小岛。整个岛开辟成一座公园,内有游乐园、汽艇、泳池、动物园、高尔夫球场以及郊游园等设施。
威因堡宫事博物馆FortWayneMilitaryMuseum
保存着南北战争以前的碉堡,展示早期的营房、弹药库、军用品等。
底特律自然动物园DetroitZoologicalPark
是世界著名的自然动物园,有39种动物在自然天地中生活。园内的HolbenAmphitheater中有猩猩和小马的表演,可免费欣赏<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>===============<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>议坛之城
<B normal">芝加哥<p></p></B></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>芝加哥系美国第二大都市,也有人称之为<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>美国的超级市场<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>TheSuperMarketofAmerica。无论从那一个角度看来,它都是一个典型的美国式都市,既是商业中心,又是交通要卫,市内到处是在建筑史上占一席地位的奇丽建筑物。可眺望密歇根湖的公园,蜿蜒的水际线,另有一番美妙景色。还有,无论是国际性会议,或美国国内较大规模的会议,大都在这一都市举行,因这又获得<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>议坛之城<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的别称。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>华丽的一英里TheMagnificentMile
自ChicagoAvenueBridge往北,到EastOakStreet之间的七条街,称之为TheMagnificentMile,可与纽约第五街媲美,有整齐、美丽的行道树,宏伟的高层建筑物,优雅的商店以及赏心悦目的橱窗陈列品。ChicagoAvenueBridge的桥头,就是以口香糖闻名的WrigleyJuniorCo.大厦,大厦下方即为汽艇码头。那个极像是玉蜀黍的TwinTowersMarinaCity也矗立在面向河川的右侧。发行数量占全美国第三位的芝加哥论坛报也以这里为根据地。WaterTower过去被认为是象徵芝加哥的著名大厦。
约翰汉寇克中心JohnHancockCenter
别名</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>BigJohn<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT></FONT><FONT size=2>(大约翰),是一幢高达100层的建筑物。它的外形像把梯子,初看有些怪异,但即是建筑结构力学上的一项新的成就。这幢大厦属一家保除公司所有,但1楼到5楼是高级时装店,6楼到141楼是公司行号的办公室,42楼以上是公寓,94楼是眺望台,95楼是餐厅,96楼则是鸡尾酒馆。
西尔斯大厦SearsTower
这一幢取代了纽约帝国大厦,成为世界上最高的建筑物,总共103层,高达1,454尺(443公尺),可以容纳16500人,可以称得上是世界奇观,从地面一层到第103层,有快速专用电梯直达,只需55秒钟,供游客鸟瞰整个芝加哥市,如遇阴天,有如置身云雾之间。
商品市场MerchandiseMart
位于芝加哥河北岸的18层楼建筑物,其规模之庞大,仅次于五角大厦。在市场内出售的商品,自家具到机械,种类达100万种以上。
斐尔特自然史博物馆FieldMuseumofNaturalHistory
在博物学这一范畴,堪称世界第一。恐龙的骸骨、古代埃及的木乃伊、马雅帝国的出土物等,均极珍贵。
林肯公园LincolnPark
位于密歇根湖边,全长8公里,占地480公顷,是芝加哥最大的公园。园内有林肯、歌德、莎士比亚、贝多芬等塑像,还有动物园等设施。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>===============<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>黄金之都</FONT>
<FONT size=2><B normal">旧金山</B>
SANFRANCISCO
加利福尼亚州<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>旧金山,美国西部最早开发的大都市,它是早期华人集居的地方,因此亦称为</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>大埠<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。整个城市环山抱海,充满了诗情画意。它是美国太平洋岸的大商港,也是美国西部的金融中心,旧金山弥漫着浪漫的艺术气氛,它是各种稀奇古怪文化滋生的地方,如六十年代的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>嬉皮<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>和近年来的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>同性恋<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>都是旧金山的产物。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>金门大桥</FONT><FONT size=2>GoldenGateBridge
是横跨金门海峡的大桥,全长2.656公里,在浓雾或夕阳掩映下,气势雄伟,为世界名桥之一。
金门园GoldenGatePark
是全世界最大的植物栽植公园。原为一砂丘,现已成绿色公园。
渔人码头Fisherman'sWharf
该处虽称为渔人码头,实际已成为旧金山主要观光地点之一。各国观光客来到旧金山照例要来这里享受一顿新鲜美味的海产宴。附近还有海洋公园的AquaticPark博物馆等。
联合广场UnionSquare
名副其实是旧金山市的商业中心,旅社、商店、百货公司林立。联合广场本身以美西战争胜利纪念塔为中心,周围有美丽的花坛。附近并有缆车,通往渔人码头。
双子丘TwinPeaks
旧金山市中心的两个山丘,登临其上可眺望太平洋、旧金山湾、金门桥、以及对岸的奥克兰。当然,旧金山市景尽收眼底。
加州大学(柏克莱)UniversityofCalifornia
校本部位于旧金山湾东岸,是太平洋沿岸最大的大学。校区内有露天希腊剧场、意大利文艺复兴时代式的钟楼。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>===============<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>大苹果</FONT>
<FONT size=2><B normal">纽约</B><p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>纽约,世界最大的城市,在这里,摩天大厦林立,有著名的第五大道(FifthAvenue俗称第五街)、对世界经济极具影响力的华尔街WallStreet,以及艺术家们响往的格林威治村GreenwichVillage。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>帝国大厦</FONT><FONT size=2>EmpireStateBuilding
长时期来象征著纽约摩天大楼的高达102层超高层大厦。顶层高度达1,250英尺(381公尺)。在第86楼上有一展望台,气候晴朗时,可以眺望周围50英里以内的景色。
洛克斐勒中心RockefellerCenter
呈现美国典型的一面,在都市建筑学方面也颇饶兴趣的商业与娱乐中心。自第49街与第50街之间,通过第五街的PromenadeGardens内,四季花草茂盛,美丽如图画,公园四周是具有代表性意义的大厦,诸如PCABuilding、RadioCityMusicHall,CenterTheatre等。NBC与ABC的制作室就是RCA大厦的第70楼。
自由女神StatueofLiberty
世界著名的自由女神像,位于纽约湾的利勃坦岛上,像高约46公尺。自由女神像内部中空,可搭电梯直达神像头部。此外,还有新设的移民博物馆ImmigrationMuseum。
联合国theUnitedNations
纽约的历史系由曼顿产生,而现代世界史则与联合国密切相关。自第42街起直到第48街上,在广达18英亩的地基上,就兴建着著名的联合国大厦。联合国容许观光客依到达先后次序入内参观会议情形。
中国城Chinatown
中国城已具有百年以上的历史,城内居住的华裔第二代约有六千人。中国城位于ChathamSquare的西边一部份,城中主要街道为Mott。城内有中国博物馆。大都会美术馆TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt乃是世界最大美术馆之一。自由代东方到现代,有关美术史的重要事项,一一呈现眼前。内中有一美国馆,可由馆中陈列品窥知初期美国人的生活状况。
华尔街WallStreet
是全球金融中心。世界最大的银行大厦,除了大通银行之外,纽约股票交易所,美国股票交易所,以及收藏1789年华盛顿就任美国第一任总统时的史迹的国立纪念馆、联邦厅等,都在这条街上。
世界贸易中心WorldTradeCenter
是纽约一处新的名胜,楼高110层,为世界首屈一指的高层建筑物。在这幢高层建筑物中,除了贸易公司之外,有运输公司、通信机构、银行、保险公司、海关等公私机构,凡与贸易及港湾活动有关的活动,均集中于此。有12万人在建筑物中工作。世界贸易中心占地达16英亩之广。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>================<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>太空城</FONT>
<B normal"><FONT size=2>休士顿<p></p></FONT></B></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>休士顿是美国的第五大都市,人类第一次登上月球的阿波罗飞船11号就在这里升空,因而使它也成为全球闻名的城镇。这一城镇是在1836年当德克萨斯州自墨西哥获得独立时,随之而诞生。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>通往墨西哥湾的休士顿港,是美国第三大港,在那里出口的棉花和石油产品,其数量占全美第一位。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>自从美国国家航空太空总署NASA在近效设置太空中心以来,休士顿正在继续不断地急速发展。
阿斯托洛圆顶运动场Astrodome
耗资3,100万美元,于1965年兴建完成的这一运动场是目前世界上最大的一座室内运动场,内部装有冷暖气设备。棒球、足球、骞马,以至于马戏团表演,都可以在室内进行。紧邻的AstroWorld是一个规模极大的娱乐中心,游客可以观赏欧洲各种村落的景色,也能够欣赏各类表演。
圣哈新托古战场SanJacintoBattlefield
1836年,休士顿将军为了争取德州独立,率军与墨军激战的地方。现在已成为州立公园,纪念塔高达174公尺,可乘电梯登上塔项。塔下是历史博物馆。距休士顿市约26公里。
美国航空太空总署太空飞行中心NASAMannedSpacecraft
因阿波罗11号在此升空而全球闻名。美国国家航空太空总署NASA于1961年设立于休士顿东南方45公里处的克利阿湖畔。附近有GeneralElectric和InternationalBusinessMachines等重要的电子工业企业,是名符其实的航空太空科学中心。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>展览馆ExhibitHall的一号馆中,陈列着太空飞行员使用的器具、太空食物、太空船模型、月球上采集的岩石,对一般观光客公开。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>太空飞行中心内部极为辽阔,可在进入中心的问讯处索取地图,备作参考。太空中心内也有礼品店,出售太空船模型、月球石头模型,以及阿波罗帽等。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>=============<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>牛仔城</FONT>
<B normal"><FONT size=2>达拉斯<p></p></FONT></B></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>达拉斯曾经以经常在美国西部电影中出现而闻名,近年来,因为肯尼迪总统在该城被刺遇害而更成为妇孺皆知的地方。但是,市区内很少有吸引观光客的去处。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>过去,达拉斯靠着棉花贸易和石油工业而繁荣,近来则正在发展电子工业和航空产业。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt">
<FONT size=2>勃勒杨小屋BryanCabin
它是拓荒者</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">—</FONT>约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>勃勒扬于</FONT><FONT size=2>1841年沿着托里尼坦河建造的小木屋,也是达拉斯最早的建筑物。
美丽公园FairPark
美国规模最大的德州展览会,每年十月就在那里举行,HallofState是园内最著名的美丽建筑物,它是为了纪念德州独立一百周年而于1936年兴建的。园内还有CottonBowlStskium(棉花馆)、GardenCenter(植物园)、MuseumofTexasHistory(德州历史博物馆),以及水族馆、美术馆等。
达拉斯剧场中心DallasTheaterCenter
这是已故名建筑师法兰克<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>洛特<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>莱脱精心设计的剧场,被称之为演剧的圣堂。他终其一生,潜心设计的剧场,也只这一所而已。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>肯尼迪总统纪念碑MemorialPlaguetoJohnF.Krnnedy
1963年11月22日,美国总统肯尼迪前往达拉斯竞选,在大街游行时,遇刺殒命,竖碑以资纪念。
白岩湖WhiteRockLake
位于市区东北部,石油大王和德州富豪在湖畔都建有豪华住宅,为白岩湖平添不少景色。
南方美以美教徒大学SouthernMethodistUnivirsity
位于达拉斯市的北部,是美国西南部屈指可数的著名学府,是美以美教会于1915兴建的。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>=================<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国首都</FONT>
<FONT size=2><B normal">华盛顿</B><p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>美国首都华盛顿特区经常受到世界各国的瞩目,它是名副其实的世界政治中心。而法国名建筑师皮埃尔<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>朗法为它所设计的都市计划,则使它成为全世界有数的美丽都市之一。<p></p></FONT></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=2>华盛顿纪念碑</FONT><FONT size=2>WashingtonMomument
为纪念第一任美国总统乔治华盛顿而兴建,塔高55英尺,内部中空,有电梯可直达塔顶展望台。
杰佛逊纪念堂JeffersonMemorial
纪念起草独立宣言与权利章典的作者杰佛逊而兴建于EastPotomacPark内,可眺望泰达湾的地点。整个建筑物呈圆柱状,象征杰佛逊总统完整的人格,纪念堂内铸有杰佛逊总统铜像。
林肯纪念堂LincoinMemorial
为纪念美国南北战争时期的林肯总统而兴建,林肯总统维护了美国的统一和解放了南方的黑奴,这一伟大的历史功绩,为今日美国的繁荣昌盛奠定了牢固的基础。
白宫TheWhiteHouse
美国总统宫邸。于1792年10月由华盛华总统亲临奠基,但华盛顿总统未能目睹其完成即进行逝世,因此,最先使用此一官邸的乃是美国第二任总统约翰<FONT face="Times New Roman">·</FONT>亚当斯。白宫东侧一部分建筑可供人们参观。</FONT>
<FONT size=2>史密苏尼博物馆SmithsonianInstitution
1864年根据英国化学家JamesSmithsonian的意见而建造的。史密苏尼博物馆是一总称,内中包括了航空太空馆、美术工艺馆、历史技术博物馆、自然历史博物馆等建筑物。拉埃脱兄弟试乘的第一架飞机KittyHawk就陈列在馆内。
国会TheCapitol
美国参、众两院构成的国会就在这里举行会议。国会内天花板与墙壁上绘满了以建国史为题材的壁画。可自由前往参观,也可参加有向导作说明的观光团。
国会图书馆LibraryofCongress
是一幢文艺复兴时代式的建筑物,圆形天花板由各式玻璃镶成的,二千扇玻璃窗制造出极好的采光效果,国会图书馆乃是世界最大的图书馆。林肯总统在格的斯堡发表的著名演说的草稿,就保存在馆内。</FONT><p></p></P>
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发表于 10-3-2005 11:16:04|来自:新加坡 | 显示全部楼层
<b>关于钟乳石的形成</b>
石灰岩洞中的钟乳石、石笋是怎样形成的

  桂林是世界闻名的风景区,山奇水秀,风景美丽,因此自古就有“桂林山水甲天下”之称。桂林除山水美之外,还有更具特色的石灰岩洞,七星岩是比较有代表性的溶洞。洞内到处悬垂着美丽的钟乳石,有的像累累的果实,有的像盛开的花朵。与之相对应的石笋拔地而起,一个个像春天从地面下“冒”出来的竹笋。
  那么这些奇丽的钟乳石和石笋是怎样形成的呢?
  原来“盛产”钟乳石和石笋的溶洞都是石灰岩构成的。洞顶有很多的裂隙,每一处裂隙里都有水滴渗透出来。每当水分蒸发掉后,那里就会留下一些石灰质的沉淀,日积月累,天长日久洞顶上的石灰质愈积愈多,终于形成了乳头。以后,乳头外面又包起一层石灰质,以至越垂越长,就形成了姿态万千的钟乳石。
  石笋其实就是钟乳石的孪生兄弟。当洞顶上的水滴落下来时,石灰质也在地面上沉积起来,就这样石笋对着钟乳石向上长起来,若是说钟乳石是“兄长”,那石笋就是“孪生弟弟”了。
  而石笋底盘大,本身比较稳定不易折断,所以它比钟乳石的生长速度还要快,还要粗壮呢。 <BR line-break"><BR line-break">
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