|
发表于 10-3-2005 11:14:38|来自:新加坡
|
显示全部楼层
<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>Native Americans</B><FONT size=2>Native Americans were living in </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place>North America</st1:place> for many hundreds of years before Europeans reached the continent. For a long time white people called them Indians. Today, many people do not like this name since it is based on a mistake: it was given to the people living in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>Americas</st1:place></st1:country-region> by Christopher *Columbus who, when he arrived there, thought he had discovered <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Instead, people prefer to use the term Native Americans. There are also native peoples living in *<st1:State><st1:place>Alaska</st1:place></st1:State> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>, e.g. *Inuits and Aleuts, but they are separate groups and are not called Native Americans.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
</FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>Early contact with Europeans
</FONT></B><FONT size=2>In *Pre-Columbian North America there were many tribes who lived by hunting animals and gathering plants. Many of the tribes moved from one place to another according to the season and what food was available. Most of what is known about Native Americans dates from the time when they came into contact with Europeans.
The first place in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> where Europeans settled permanently was *<st1:place><st1:City>Jamestown</st1:City>, <st1:State>Virginia</st1:State></st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>, founded in 1607. At first Native Americans were positive about the Europeans and were happy to have the many new things they brought, e.g. metal cooking pots, cloth and guns. But the Europeans also introduced diseases that Native Americans had no resistance to, so many became ill and died. They also brought alcohol, the effects of which Native Americans did not know. Some Europeans took advantage of this by getting them drunk and then paying low prices for their goods.
The worst problem for Native Americans, which lasted into the late 20th century, was that the new settlers wanted their land. To native Americans owning land was a strange idea. Tribes moved around as they pleased and shared land with any other tribe that was friendly. They did not understand that a person might believe a piece of land was theirs, or that they would try to keep others from using it. The settlers, on the other hand, assumed that they would take control of <st1:place>North America</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2> and used all means to do this, including making agreements, which they usually did not keep, tricking Native Americans into selling land cheaply, and taking it by military force. Native American chiefs like *Sitting Bull, *Tecumseh and *Geronimo fought against the settlers.
As Whites began moving west, Native American tribes had to be moved on. Some were forced to go to other parts of <st1:place>North America</st1:place>, to areas very different from the ones they were used to. The *Trail of Tears was one of many terrible examples: in the cold winter of 18389 17 000 *Cherokees had to move from their land in the south-east to what is now *<st1:State><st1:place>Oklahoma</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2> and more than 4 000 died. The government promised tribes that if they agreed to stay in one part of the country they could keep that land forever. But the promises lasted only until Americans discovered that the land they had given them was good for farming or had gold.
Whites have explained this behaviour in different ways. When the Indians fought and killed white people they said that this proved that Native Americans were wild and had to be controlled. People also believed that the Native Americans were wasting good land by not developing it. In the 19th century Americans believed in *manifest destiny, meaning that they thought God wanted them to occupy the whole continent. They also believed that it was better for the Native Americans to learn to live like white people and tried to teach them Christianity. Many Native American children, including the athlete Jim *Thorpe, were taken away from their tribe and sent to schools where they were not allowed to speak their own language.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>Native American languages</FONT></B><FONT size=2>Before Europeans arrived in </FONT><st1:place><FONT size=2>North America</FONT></st1:place><FONT size=2> there were over 300 Native American languages. Some have now died out, and of the 250 or so remaining many are spoken only by a few older people. Other languages, like Cherokee, are more widely spoken. Most Native Americans speak English, some as their first language and others as their second.
Native American languages have added many words to English, though the meaning of a word has often been changed. Teepees are a kind of tent, *wampum belts were made of beads and since the belts had great <I normal?>value</I> Europeans used wampum to mean 'money'. Moccasins, a kind of shoe, are today worn by people all over the world. Many Native American words describe the things they name. For example, the Asakiwaki tribe's name means 'people of the yellow earth', and the Cherokees' name for themselves, Ani-Yun'wiya, means 'the leading people'. Indian names for Whites included 'people greedily grasping for land'.
Many American place names have their roots in Native American languages. *<st1:State><st1:place>Ohio</st1:place></st1:State>, for instance, is a Native American name, and the names of many of its towns and cities, such as <st1:City><st1:place>Chillicothe</st1:place></st1:City> and <st1:City><st1:place>Sandusky</st1:place></st1:City>, and the lakes <st1:place>Scioto</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2> and Olentangy, are of Native American origin.
Native Americans today
According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a part of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> government, there are now about 550 tribes. These include well-known groups like the *Navajo and *Sioux, and less famous tribes like the Cayuse. The number of Native Americans living in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> is about 1.2 million.
Almost a million live on reservations, areas of land that the government has allowed them to keep as their own. Native Americans are US citizens, and have the rights and responsibilities of any <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> citizen. However, reservations have their own governments and police forces and Native Americans pay different taxes. They also have the right to hunt and fish where and when they like, while other Americans have to get a licence.
On or off the reservations Native Americans find it difficult to live the traditional life. Activities of other Americans affect the way they live. Building dams across a river, for example, can affect the numbers of fish living there, so that even though Native Americans have the right to fish they may not be able to catch anything. Away from the reservations, many Native Americans find that their culture is very different from that of white people and have difficulty adapting.
Poverty is a serious problem. About 37% of people who live on reservations are unemployed, compared with 6% of the general population. Many tribes try to bring in money from outside. Some sell rights to search for oil on their reservation, others use the fact that the reservation makes its own rules to open casinos where people from outside can come and gamble. Gambling is illegal in most parts of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> and many Americans want it to remain so, but it makes a lot of money for the tribes. This brings Native Americans, once again, into conflict with white Americans.<BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2><B normal?>Native Americans in the popular imagination
</B>An American tradition dating back to early times is *Thanksgiving. When the English arrived in <st1:City><st1:place>Jamestown</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2> many died during the long cold winter, but in the following spring Native Americans showed them what local foods they could eat. In the autumn, well-prepared for the winter, settlers and Native Americans had a special dinner together, the first Thanksgiving, to thank God and the Native Americans for all the food they had.
Another story describes how the Native American princess *Pocahontas saved the life of John *Smith, the leader in <st1:City><st1:place>Jamestown</st1:place></st1:City>, when her father, *Powhatan, wanted to kill him. She later married another Englishman, John Rolfe, and went to <st1:country-region><st1:place>England</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2> with him. The story of Pocahontas is widely known and many Americans are proud to have her as an ancestor.
But Native Americans were more often seen by white settlers as the enemy. *Westerns, i.e. films and books about the *Wild West, use the threat from Indians as their central theme. In this context Native Americans are still called 'Indians'. Children often play 'cowboys and Indians' and pretend to kill each other. When *Buffalo Bill, began touring the US with his Wild West show, the chief Sitting Bull was one of many Native Americans in it, and many people went to see this former great enemy.
Many Americans have an image of a 'typical Indian', a chief who lived in a teepee with his squaw (= wife), smoked a peace pipe after signing a treaty with the white man (whom he called pale face), sent smoke signals to communicate with people far away, and spoke broken English full of colourful expressions such as 'big heap wampum' (a lot of money) and 'speaks with forked tongue' (is lying). Most of these ideas have some basis in Native American culture, but it is wrong to put them all together and believe that that was how Native Americans lived.
Americans make such mistakes because they have little interest in Native Americans. Having succeeded in pushing them out of the way onto reservations, most Americans ignore them. This may be because the Native Americans who are left are living proof of a hard truth: America wants to be, and often is, a land where everyone has a chance and where the government behaves fairly and honestly to all, but this America is built on land stolen from the people who lived there first. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><P><FONT size=2></FONT></P></B><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>George Washington (1732-99)</FONT></B><FONT size=2>the first US *President (1789-97), who had led its army to success in the *American Revolution. He is called 'the Father of His Country'. The *Continental Congress placed him in charge of the American forces in 1775. Although his army had a difficult and dangerous winter at *</FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place>Valley Forge</st1:place>, General Washington led them to several victories, including the final <st1:City><st1:place>Battle</st1:place></st1:City> of *<st1:place>Yorktown</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>. He later gave his important approval for the *American Constitution and was elected in 1789 as the country's first president. He supported a strong central government but disliked political party arguments. He was elected a second time, but refused to stand as a candidate for a third time and returned to his home at *Mount Vernon.
Americans have always admired <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> as one of their best and most moral presidents. He is considered by many to have been the country's greatest leader and perhaps the only one who could have united the colonists during the American Revolution. Most people know the story of how as a boy he cut down his father's cherry tree and then admitted what he had done, saying, 'I cannot tell a lie.' The story may not be true but it is seen as a symbol of his honesty. <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>'s fine personal qualities and fair politics were recognized during his life, and they seem even more impressive today. His memory is honoured by the *<st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Washington</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Monument</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> and the names of the country's capital city, a state, many *counties, government buildings, schools, streets, mountains, etc, and his image appears on the dollar note and the 25-cent coin. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2><st1:place><st1:City>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State>DC</st1:State></st1:place> (<st1:place><st1:City>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State>District of Columbia</st1:State></st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>)
the capital city of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region>, whose area covers the *<st1:State><st1:place>District of Columbia</st1:place></st1:State>. The place was chosen by George *<st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> in 1790, and since 1800 the main departments of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region> government have been there. It is known for its historical monuments and important buildings, including the *Capitol, the *White House(1), the *Supreme Court, the *National Archives, the *Library of Congress, the *Smithsonian Institution, the *National Gallery of Art and the *<st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Kennedy</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Center</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>. About 66% of <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State></FONT><FONT size=2>'s population are *African Americans.
<st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Washington</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Monument</st1:PlaceType></st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>a tall, thin monument on The *Mall(2) in *</FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place><st1:City>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State>DC</st1:State></st1:place>, built to honour the memory of George *<st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>. It is 555 feet/169 metres high and made of white marble. Tourists can climb the 898 steps to the top, from which there are fine views of the city. The Monument took 40 years to build and was completed in 1888. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>jazz
Jazz is one of the greatest forms of music originating in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>US</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>. The names of its stars, who are mostly *African Americans, are known around the world. Most people have heard of stars like Ella *Fitzgerald, 'Count' *Basie, 'Duke' *Ellington and Louis *Armstrong. Wynton *Marsalis, who plays in the traditional style, is the best-known jazz musician today.
Jazz was begun in the *South by African Americans. Many of its rhythms came from the work songs and spirituals (= religious songs) of black slaves. <st1:Street><st1:address>New Orleans street</st1:address></st1:Street> bands first made jazz popular. Early forms of jazz created at the beginning of the 20th century were *ragtime and the *blues. Ragtime musicians included the singer 'Jelly Roll' *Morton and the composer and piano player Scott *<st1:City><st1:place>Joplin</st1:place></st1:City>. Famous blues singers included Bessie *Smith and later Billie *<st1:place>Holiday</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>. *Dixieland developed from ragtime and the blues and made a feature of improvisation (= making up the music as it is being played), especially on the trumpet and saxophone. Dixieland stars included Louis Armstrong and Sidney Bechet.
In the 1920s many African Americans moved north, taking jazz with them, and *<st1:City><st1:place>Chicago</st1:place></st1:City> and <st1:State><st1:place>New York</st1:place></st1:State> became centres for the music. This was the beginning of the big band era. In the 1930s swing music came into fashion and people danced to jazz. Radio and the new recording industry helped to make it even more popular. The big bands were led by Basie, Ellington, Woody *Herman, Glenn *Miller and 'the King of Swing', Benny *Goodman. In the 1940s there were new styles such as *bebop, developed by 'Dizzy' *Gillespie, Charlie 'Bird' *Parker and Thelonious *Monk. Freer forms like progressive jazz developed in the 1950s with stars including Stan *Getz and Dave *Brubeck. Cool jazz followed in the 1960s, led by Getz and Miles *<st1:City><st1:place>Davis</st1:place></st1:City>. More recent styles have included funky jazz, jazz-rock and hip-hop jazz. Many jazz clubs, like the *Cotton Club, have now closed but others, like Preservation Hall in *<st1:City><st1:place>New Orleans</st1:place></st1:City>, and Birdland in *<st1:City><st1:place>Manhattan</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2>, remain.
In <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> jazz attracts a small but enthusiastic audience. The height of its popularity was in the 1940s and 1950s, when large crowds gathered to hear big bands. British jazz has always been heavily influenced by US jazz. In the 1960s pop and rock music replaced jazz as the music of the young generation. There are now few jazz bands, although smaller combos (= groups) continue to play a wide range of trad (= traditional), bebop, cool and avant-garde jazz. The most famous British jazz musicians have included Johnny *Dankworth and Cleo *Laine, George Melly, Humphrey *Lyttelton and Courtney *Pine. The home of jazz in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> is Ronnie *Scott's club in <st1:City><st1:place>London</st1:place></st1:City>. <p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><P><FONT size=2></FONT></P><p><H1 0pt? 0in><FONT face=新宋体 size=3>MAYA</FONT></H1><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>1.Maya Culture</B><FONT size=2>The Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:place>Mesoamerica</st1:place>. Originating in the Yucat<FONT face="Times New Roman">á</FONT>n around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Guatemala</st1:place></st1:country-region>, northern <st1:country-region><st1:place>Belize</st1:place></st1:country-region> and western <st1:country-region><st1:place>Honduras</st1:place></st1:country-region></FONT><FONT size=2>. Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya developed astronomy, calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing. The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools. They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rain forest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizeable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater. The Maya were equally skilled as weavers and potters, and cleared routes through jungles and swamps to foster extensive trade networks with distant peoples.
Around 300 B.C., the Maya adopted a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings. This civilization developed into highly structured kingdoms during the Classic period, A.D. 200-900. Their society consisted of many independent states, each with a rural farming community and large urban sites built around ceremonial centres. It started to decline around A.D. 900 when - for reasons which are still largely a mystery - the southern Maya abandoned their cities. When the northern Maya were integrated into the Toltec society by A.D. 1200, the Maya dynasty finally came to a close, although some peripheral centres continued to thrive until the Spanish Conquest in the early sixteenth century.
Maya history can be characterized as cycles of rise and fall: city-states rose in prominence and fell into decline, only to be replaced by others. It could also be described as one of continuity and change, guided by a religion that remains the foundation of their culture. For those who follow the ancient Maya traditions, the belief in the influence of the cosmos on human lives and the necessity of paying homage to the gods through rituals continues to find expression in a modern hybrid Christian-Maya faith.
Cosmology and Religion
The ancient Maya believed in recurring cycles of creation and destruction and thought in terms of eras lasting about 5,200 modern years. The current cycle is believed by the Maya to have begun in either 3114 B.C. or 3113 B.C. of our calendar, and is expected to end in either A.D. 2011 or 2012.
Maya cosmology is not easy to reconstruct from our current knowledge of their civilization. It seems apparent, however, that the Maya believed Earth to be flat and four-cornered. Each corner was located at a cardinal point and had a colour <I normal?>value</I>: red for east, white for north, black for west, and yellow for south. At the centre was the colour green.
Some Maya also believed that the sky was multi-layered and that it was supported at the corners by four gods of immense physical strength called "Bacabs". Other Maya believed that the sky was supported by four trees of different colours and species, with the green ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, at the centre.
Earth in its flat form was thought by the Maya to be the back of a giant crocodile, resting in a pool of water lilies. The crocodile's counterpart in the sky was a double-headed serpent - a concept probably based on the fact that the Maya word for "sky" is similar to the word for "snake". In hieroglyphics, the body of the sky-serpent is marked not only with its own sign of crossed bands, but also those of the Sun, the Moon, Venus and other celestial bodies.
Heaven was believed to have 13 layers, and each layer had its own god. Uppermost was the muan bird, a kind of screech-owl. The Underworld had nine layers, with nine corresponding Lords of the Night. The Underworld was a cold, unhappy place and was believed to be the destination of most Maya after death. Heavenly bodies such as the Sun, the Moon, and Venus, were also thought to pass through the Underworld after they disappeared below the horizon every evening.
Very little is known about the Maya pantheon. The Maya had a bewildering number of gods, with at least 166 named deities. This is partly because each of the gods had many aspects. Some had more than one sex; others could be both young and old; and every god representing a heavenly body had a different Underworld face, which appeared when the god "died" in the evening<BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>2.The Maya Calendar:</B><FONT size=2>The Maya kept time with a combination of several cycles that meshed together to mark the movement of the sun, moon and Venus. The Maya calendar in its final form probably dates from about the 1st century B.C., and may originate with the Olmec civilization. It is extremely accurate, and the calculations of Maya priests were so precise that their calendar correction is 10,000th of a day more exact than the standard calendar the world uses today.
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex and intricate. They used 20-day months, and had two calendar years: the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab. These two calendars coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a "bundle" and meant the same to the Maya as our century does to us.
The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names. Each of the day names is represented by a god who carries time across the sky, thus marking the passage of night and day. The day names are Imix, Ik, </FONT><st1:place><FONT size=2><st1:City>Akbal</st1:City>, <st1:State>Kan</st1:State></FONT></st1:place><FONT size=2>, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. Some of these are animal gods, such as Chuen (the dog), and Ahau (the eagle), and archaeologists have pointed out that the Maya sequence of animals can be matched in similar sequence to the lunar zodiacs of many East and Southeast Asian civilizations. <BR line-break?><BR line-break?><p></FONT><p><P 0pt? 0in><B normal?>3.Writing and Hieroglyphics:</B><B normal?></B><FONT size=2>The Maya writing system is considered by archaeologists to be the most sophisticated system ever developed in <st1:place>Mesoamerica</st1:place></FONT><FONT size=2>.
The Maya wrote using 800 individual signs or glyphs, paired in columns that read together from left to right and top to bottom. Maya glyphs represented words or syllables that could be combined to form any word or concept in the Mayan language, including numbers, time periods, royal names, titles, dynastic events, and the names of gods, scribes, sculptors, objects, buildings, places, and food. Hieroglyphic inscriptions were either carved in stone and wood on Maya monuments and architecture, or painted on paper, plaster walls and pottery.
The unit of the Maya writing system is the glyphic cartouche, which is equivalent to the words and sentences of a modern language. Maya cartouches included at least three or four glyphs and as many as fifty. Each cartouche contained various glyphs, as well as prefixes and suffixes. There is no Maya alphabet.
Maya writing is difficult to interpret for a number of reasons. First, glyphs do not represent just sounds or ideas, they can represent both, making it difficult to know how each glyph or cartouche should be read. In addition, many Maya glyphs can have more than one meaning, and many Maya concepts can be written in more than one way. Numbers, for example, can be written with Maya numerical symbols or with the picture of a god associated with that number, or a combination of the two. Some glyphs represent more than one phonetic sound, while also representing an idea. This means that a single idea can be written in many different ways. For example, the name of the <st1:City><st1:place>Palenque</st1:place></st1:City></FONT><FONT size=2> ruler, Pacal, whose name literally means "Hand-shield", appears sometimes as a picture of a hand-shield, sometimes phonetically as pa-cal-la, and at other times as a combination of picture symbols and phonetics.
(</FONT><a href="http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/" target="_blank" ><FONT size=2>http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/</FONT></A><FONT size=2>) <P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal">霓虹灯</B>
A neon light is the sort of light you see used in advertising signs. These signs are made of long, narrow glass tubes, and these tubes are often bent into all sorts of shapes. The tube of a neon light can spell out a word, for example. These tubes emit light in different colors.
The idea behind a neon light is simple. Inside the glass tube there is a gas like neon, argon or krypton at low pressure. At both ends of the tube there are metal electrodes. When you apply a high voltage to the electrodes, the neon gas ionizes, and electrons flow through the gas. These electrons excite the neon atoms and cause them to emit light that we can see. Neon emits red light when energized in this way. Other gases emit other colors. <p></p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><p> </p></P><P 0in 0in 0pt"><B normal">羊皮书制手抄本 </B>
公元100年前后,古希腊人将纸莎草纸裁成单页,双面书写,写完后粘成类似今书本型。这种文献,史称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>手抄本<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。手抄本翻阅方便,载文量大,具备了现代书的外型,逐渐成为图书的标准形式。
公元前800年左右,中东地区帕加马人,迫于亚历山大城对纸莎草的封锁以及希腊地区两大图书馆的竞争,在公元前2世纪发明了用羊皮、牛皮制成羊皮纸的工艺。 它将绵羊、山羊、羚羊、小牛或其它动物的皮进行加工处理,弄薄后,在其上书写文字。所 形成的古文献,史称<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>羊皮书<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。羊皮书最初是书卷型的,后来演变为书本型。公元前200 年前后,帕加马成为羊皮纸的生产中心,并使该技术向各地传播。尔后羊皮纸的使用风靡罗马。
羊皮纸没有纸莎草那么笨重,而且可以折叠,成为<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>羊皮书<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。公元1世纪,罗马人征服了地中海沿岸,没有建立起更大的图书馆,却建立了最大的档案管<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>Tabularium<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。罗马的诗人可以在羊皮上 <FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>发表<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>自己的作品,就是请专门的抄写手在羊皮上抄写多份并出售,尽管它在经济上并不合算。中世纪的欧洲,基督教世界里的修道院开始也使用纸莎草,后来转到使用高级的羊皮纸,而且往往有精美的插图,抄写《圣经》成为修道士的一种职业;在阿拉伯世界里,他们则用羊皮纸抄写《古兰经》。公元4世纪前后,由于羊皮纸 坚固、书写清晰,而逐渐取代纸莎草纸成为制作手抄本的材料。</P></FONT> |
|