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发表于 10-3-2005 11:25:16|来自:新加坡
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>polymer gels 一种聚合凝胶</FONT></B><FONT size=2>
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The following information was part of our display for the SET96 and SET98 Scientific Power to the People Exhibition, The Galleries, </FONT><FONT size=2><st1:City><st1:place>Bristol</st1:place></st1:City>, 20th and <st1:date Month="3" Day="21" Year="1998">21st March 1998</st1:date></FONT><FONT size=2>.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>A POLYMER is a very long molecule rather like a very long piece of string.
The borax joins two molecules together to make a large network - rather like a flexible scaffolding. This is cross-linking.
This turns the fluid dissolved polymer into a GEL.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>In oilwells water is pushed down to push oil up. If this breaks through to the production well bore, the well will just produce water. A solution is to block the rock pores with polymer gel to make the well produce oil again. These gels can be made from naturally occurring sugar-based polymers such as Guar and they can be cross-linked with Cobalt or Chromium.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>Other everyday examples of polymer gels are to be found in non-drip emulsion paints, foods, car tyres and agrochemicals.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>The polymer that we are using is POLYVINYL ALCOHOL and we are joining the strands together with BORAX. This gel, when coloured, is sold in toyshops as SLIME.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman"><FONT size=2><B normal?>backgrounds of </B><st1:State><st1:place><B normal?>washington</B></st1:place></st1:State></FONT></FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Map of <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Federal</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>City</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>, 1797
Historical Society of Washington, DC
The plan of the city of <st1:City><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:City> was designed in 1791 by Pierre L'Enfant, and mapped the following year; a design which remains largely in place. For nearly a century, the realization of physical changes to the original plan were gradual until the second important benchmark in the development of Washington's urban plan: the McMillan Commission and its 1901-02 recommendations. The McMillan Commission plans were implemented predominantly during the first three decades of the 20th century, and continued sporadically thereafter. For nearly 100 years, a legal height limit of 160' has preserved the broad, horizontal Baroque nature of the city, allowing light and air to reach the pedestrian level, and resulting in a picturesque skyline pierced by steeples, domes, towers and monuments. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>On <st1:date Month="1" Day="24" Year="1791">January 24, 1791</st1:date>, President George Washington announced the Congressionally-designated permanent location of the national capital, a diamond-shaped ten-mile tract at the confluence of the <st1:place>Potomac</st1:place> and <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Eastern</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName>Branch</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Rivers</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>. A survey of the area was undertaken by Andrew Ellicott and Benjamin Banneker. Forty boundary stones, laid at one-mile intervals, established the boundaries based on celestial calculations by Banneker, a self-taught astronomer of African descent and one of the few free blacks living in the vicinity. Within this 100 square mile diamond, which would become the <st1:State><st1:place>District of Columbia</st1:place></st1:State>, a smaller area was laid out as the city of <st1:City><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:City>. (In 1846, one-third of the District was retroceded by Congressional action to Virginia, thus removing that portion of the original district which lay west of the Potomac River.) In March 1791,the surveyors' roles were complemented by the employment of Major Pierre Charles L'Enfant to prepare the plan. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Major L'Enfant (1755-1825), a French artist and engineer who had formed a friendship with George Washington while serving in the Revolutionary War, requested the honor of designing a plan for the national capital. The fact that the area was largely undeveloped gave the city's founders the unique opportunity to create an entirely new capital city. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>After surveying the site, L'Enfant developed a Baroque plan that features ceremonial spaces and grand radial avenues, while respecting natural contours of the land. The result was a system of intersecting diagonal avenues superimposed over a grid system. The avenues radiated from the two most significant building sites that were to be occupied by houses for Congress and the President. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>L'Enfant specified in notes accompanying the plan that these avenues were to be wide, grand, lined with trees, and situated in a manner that would visually connect ideal topographical sites throughout the city, where important structures, monuments, and fountains were to be erected. On paper, L'Enfant shaded and numbered 15 large open spaces at the intersections of these avenues and indicated that they would be divided among the states. He specified that each reservation would feature statues and memorials to honor worthy citizens. The open spaces were as integral to the capital as the buildings to be erected around them. L'Enfant opposed selling land prematurely, refused to furnish his map to the city commissioners in time for the sale, and was reluctantly relieved of his duties by George Washington. Ellicott was then engaged to produce a map and reproduced L'Enfant's plan from his memory. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>In the context of the <st1:country-region><st1:place>United States</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a plan as grand as the 200 year old city of <st1:City><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:City>, DC, stands alone in its magnificence and scale. But as the capital of a new nation, its position and appearance had to surpass the social, economic and cultural balance of a mere city: it was intended as the model for American city planning and a symbol of governmental power to be seen by other nations. The remarkable aspect of <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>, is that by definition of built-out blocks and unobstructed open space, the plan conceived by L'Enfant is little changed today. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>The McMillan Plan </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>As the city approached its centennial, there was a call to develop a comprehensive park system for the city. As early as 1898, a committee was formed to meet with President William McKinley to propose the erection of a monument to commemorate the centennial of the city. A joint committee formed by Congress held its first meeting in February 1900 with Senator James McMillan of <st1:State><st1:place>Michigan</st1:place></st1:State> as chairman, and Charles Moore as secretary. At the same time, plans were put forward for the development of a Mall which would include the newly reclaimed Potomac Flats. As the bureaucracy planned for the centennial, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) joined the fray. AIA leaders envisioned the nation's capital as the perfect place for the group to express the ideals of the City Beautiful movement promoted by the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in <st1:City><st1:place>Chicago</st1:place></st1:City>. The architect of this pivotal fair designed Beaux Arts Classical architecture in a grand and ordered civic space. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>When the Senate Commission was formed in 1901 to explore and plan the design of the city, the project then encompassed the historic core. The illustrious committee was comprised of Daniel Burnham, a visionary of the World's Columbian Exposition, as well as landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., architect Charles F.McKim, and sculptor Augustus St. Gaudens. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Foremost in the minds of these men was the amazing foresight and genius of Pierre L'Enfant. The committee lamented the fragmented Mall marred by a railroad station and focused upon restoring it to the uninterrupted greensward envisioned by L'Enfant. In total, the forward-looking plans made by the McMillan Commission called for: re-landscaping the ceremonial core, consisting of the Capitol Grounds and Mall, including new extensions west and south of the Washington Monument; consolidating city railways and alleviating at-grade crossings; clearing slums; designing a coordinated municipal office complex in the triangle formed by Pennsylvanian Avenue, 15th Street, and the Mall, and establishing a comprehensive recreation and park system that would preserve the ring of Civil War fortifications around the city. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>To protect the new goals introduced by the McMillan study, the AIA appealed to President Theodore Roosevelt to form a fine arts commission. Established by Congress in 1910 during the Taft Administration, the Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) was created as a consulting organization to the government on the design of bridges, parks, paintings, and other artistic matters; an executive order later that year added the design review of all public buildings. </FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman"><FONT size=2>Influenced by the designs of several European cities and 18th century gardens such as <st1:country-region><st1:place>France</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s <st1:place><st1:PlaceType>Palace</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName>Versailles</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>, the plan of <st1:place><st1:City>Washington</st1:City>, <st1:State>DC</st1:State></st1:place> was symbolic and innovative for the new nation. Only limited changes were made to the historic city-bounded by <st1:Street><st1:address>Florida Avenue</st1:address></st1:Street> on the north and the waterways on the east, west and south-until after the Civil War. The foremost manipulation of L'Enfant's plan began in the 19th century, and was codified in 1901 when the McMillan Commission directed urban improvements that resulted in the most elegant example of City Beautiful tenets in the nation. L'Enfant's plan was magnified and expanded during the early decades of the 20th century with the reclamation of land for waterfront parks, parkways, an improved Mall and new monuments and vistas. Two hundred years since its design, the integrity of the plan of <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State> is largely unimpaired-boasting a legal enforced height restriction, landscaped parks, wide avenues, and open space allowing intended vistas. Constant vigilance is needed by the agencies responsible for design review, it their charge to continue the vision of L'Enfant.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2><B normal?>鹦鹉螺</B><B normal?>(中文版)</B></FONT><BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>鹦鹉螺属于头足纲中的四鳃类。古老的头足类也都像鹦鹉螺一样,有不同形状的贝壳。但到现在它们大都已经灭绝,唯一剩下的只有在海底生活的鹦鹉螺了,所以鹦鹉螺是一种<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>活化石<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>,属于国家保护动物,很久以来便是动物进化系统研究中的很有价值的材料之一。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2> 鹦鹉螺是一种底栖性的动物,平时在海底爬行,偶然也漂浮在海中游泳。它的游泳方式跟乌贼相仿,是利用它的两片互相包被的漏斗喷水进行的。鹦鹉螺的触手数目很多,一共有90个。其中有两个合在一起变得很肥厚,当肉体缩到贝壳里的时候,用它盖住壳口,这与腹足类的厣的作用相当。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2> 世界上生活的鹦鹉螺一共只有3种,数量也不多。它们的贝壳很好看,珍珠层很厚,可供玩赏或制造工艺品。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>海底</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>天文学家<FONT face="Times New Roman">”——</FONT>鹦鹉螺</FONT><FONT size=2>
鹦鹉螺属软体动物头足纲,早在距今5亿多年前就出现了,分布在全球范围内,有350多种,与它同类的章鱼、鱿鱼、乌贼等在进化发展中身体发生了很大的变化,身体外的壳有的转入身体里面,如乌贼。有的仅仅留下一层胶质的薄膜,如鱿鱼。还有的壳已经消失了,如章鱼。它们游泳的速度加快了,可是惟独鹦鹉螺的壳自从演变成现在的模样就没有多大变化,只有6种,所以它是现存软体动物中最古老、最低等的种类,也是研究生物进化、古生物与古气候的重要材料,有<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>活化石<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>之称。稍有变化的是生活的环境从原来的浅海移居到</FONT><FONT size=2>200~400米的深海中。白天在水下,晚间浮出水面。
鹦鹉螺的足在头部,所以称头足类,依靠身体前端的几十根触手搅动水流进食,如果前后水平运动,则是靠吸水排水;鹦鹉螺上下垂直运动则靠的是壳内众多的气室,气室间有一根充满血液的连接小管,充气和排气,充满气体就上升,排除气体就下沉。所以说鹦鹉螺的结构设计是自然界最奇妙的设计。
鹦鹉螺的气室是一间一间形成的,最外边的一间是最新的、最大的。到目前为止最多的有38间。鹦鹉螺壳的构造不仅美丽而且坚固,它的曲线是一种对数函数,能够承受2000千克的压力。
鹦鹉螺气室上有许多环纹称为生长线。同一个时代的鹦鹉螺化石,其生长线数目是一样的。但是,这些生长线数目随年代的不同而变化,研究化石的鹦鹉螺,从远古到现在,生长线数目越来越多。据研究,生长线的数目与当时月亮绕地球一周所需要的天数是一致的,远古时期,月亮距离地球近,绕地球一周的天数少,所以生长线的数目少,现在的鹦鹉螺的生长线有30条,正好与现在月亮绕地球一圈所用的时间一致。鹦鹉螺壳记录了月亮与地球的旋转的关系,所以鹦鹉螺有<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>海底天文学家<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>的美誉。</FONT><FONT size=2>鹦鹉螺分布于马来群岛、台湾海峡和南海诸岛。
鹦鹉入海飞
在距今4亿4千万年到5亿年前,有一时期,独霸海洋的曾经是一种体型很大的鹦鹉螺。鹦鹉螺是软体动物,柔软的身体外面包着外壳,外壳又厚又大,从背面向腹面卷成螺旋型,左右对称,壳的外面有均匀的条纹。活的鹦鹉螺全身闪耀着白色、灰色、橘红色的光泽,在海洋游泳时,头和腕完全伸出壳外,壳口向下,像一只翩翩飞舞的鹦鹉。从古代到中生代,头足类十分繁盛,在古生物学中头足纲被划分为:鹦鹉螺亚纲、杆石亚纲菊石亚纲和鞘形亚纲,人们根据壳的形状,体管内沉积物特点、体管类型等,把鹦鹉螺划分为四个超目,是:直角石超目、内角石超目、珠角石超目和鹦鹉螺超目。前三个超目是已经灭绝的类群,惟独鹦鹉螺超目一直残存到现在。鹦鹉螺在软体动物中是进化的比较完善的一个类群,所以在它的时期可以为所欲为。它们以其它小动物为食。他们有明显的头部,眼睛很大,视力很好。头的前端中央有口,口内有坚硬的颚,能够咀嚼很硬的东西。口的周围有几十条细小的腕,用来探索环境、捕捉食物也用来在海底爬行。主要的运动方式和乌贼差不多。鹦鹉螺在5亿多年前就出现了,早出现的种类体型小,数量不多,构造比较简单,4亿4千万年前,这个华丽的家族极其繁盛,现在的化石品种已达2500多种(不包括菊石)身体也大的惊人,最大的鹦鹉螺化石是在奥陶纪地层中发现的长达10多米。在四亿多年前仍然很多,到了三亿5千万年前开始迅速衰落,现在仅仅生存有4种 ,是著名的活化石。运气好的话只有在印度洋和菲律宾不超过600米深度的温暖海洋,探海的人可以极其幸运的捕捞到,进行饲养,很难活到一年。我国的鹦鹉螺壳来源全部来自西沙群岛、南沙群岛和海南岛,数量很多。也从一个侧面反映了我国的鹦鹉螺种群在逐步萎缩,现在4种鹦鹉螺是世界级的重点保护动物,我国的鹦鹉螺品种的研究价值比较特殊,是那3种无法代替的,所以我国的鹦鹉螺要严加保护! <BR line-break?><BR line-break?>
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman"><FONT size=2><B normal?>About nautilus and king nautilus</B>
By 1986, Saunders and I had collected tissue from nautiluses around <st1:country-region><st1:place>Fiji</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:place><st1:City>Samoa</st1:City>, <st1:country-region>Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>New Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the <st1:country-region><st1:place>Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Palau</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and <st1:State><st1:place>New Caledonia</st1:place></st1:State>. Two independent sequencings of their genes yielded the same remarkable result there are only two distinct groups of nautiluses. One is composed of the king nautilus, which appears to have descended from the chambered nautilus about 15 million years ago; the other group is composed of all the other so-called nautilus species. </FONT></FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>If the genetic evidence is accepted, it means that the long-agreed classification of the living species has crumbled. The king nautilus represents a different genus altogether, while the differences in shell morphology of the other "species" seem to be useless in telling them apart. We had gone from 11 living species belonging to one genus--Nautilus--to two genera, Nautilus and our newly recognized genus, with only two or three species between them. We gave the king nautilus a new scientific name, Allonautilus, which is Latin for "other nautilus."</FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>These surprising results made us wonder if nautiloid fossils might also have some secrets to reveal. Unable to study extinct nautiloid DNA, we had to figure out a new way to classify these animals based on their shells alone. Previous studies of nautiloids had classified them on relatively few features, and we hoped that we might find more to examine. Luckily for us, just such a trove of distinctive new characters had been uncovered by Neil Landman of the <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>American</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>Museum</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> of Natural History in <st1:State><st1:place>New York</st1:place></st1:State>.</FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>The chambered nautilus hatches at a very large size: it emerges from its egg with seven fully formed chambers and a shell diameter of more than an inch, making it the largest invertebrate at hatching in the world. (Indeed, it may have been this trait that allowed it to survive the great Cretaceous mass extinction, for the nautilus appears to lay its eggs in very deep water, where they take a year to hatch. Juveniles or unhatched eggs might have survived in a deep refuge when the great comet ending the age of dinosaurs, 65 million years ago, turned all the shallower oceanic regions into a toxic, heated cauldron of extinction.) When a living chambered nautilus emerges from its egg, it stops growing temporarily, and this pause leaves a distinct groove in its shell. Since the shell wraps around itself as it grows, these earliest stages are always preserved in the middle. Landman began dissecting fossils to see if similar marks were found in extinct species as well. He discovered that not only did these marks occur, but many other features also.</FONT></P>
<P 0pt? 0in><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=2>Saunders and I combined Landman's new characters with the classical ones and then began to study their occurrence in living and extinct nautiloids. Both of us had been taught that present-day nautiluses are the most recently evolved of the 10,000 nautiloids that have swum through the oceans over the past 500 million years. Thus we expected them to have a lot of features that had evolved relatively recently. To our surprise, we found that today's chambered nautilus appears to be extremely primitive--rather than being a descendant of some fairly recently evolved nautiloid, the chambered nautilus evolved much earlier. It may even be the ancestor of most of the nautiloids present on our planet for the last 75 to 100 million years.</FONT></P>
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>有关鹦鹉螺的完整介绍!</FONT></B><a href="http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m1511/n3_v19/20324745/p1/article.jhtml?term=" target="_blank" ><FONT size=2>http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m1511/n3_v19/20324745/p1/article.jhtml?term=</FONT></A><FONT size=2>
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>mangrove:红树林
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什么是红树林?它有什么作用?
红树林是唯一能种植在海滩上,耐海水浸渍的树木。老厦门们对它并不陌生,它就是过去海边常见的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>海 加定<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。红树林是热带、亚热带潮间带特有的木本植物群落。科学研究表明:红树林生态系统是世界上高生产力的生态系统之一。</FONT><FONT size=2>
红树林对近海渔业有积极的促进作用,是海区生物能源的重要供应者。红树林区是 多种鱼、虾和蟹等经济海产隐蔽、生长和繁殖的良好场所。红树林作为沿海防护林的第一道屏障,对风浪具有强大的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>消能<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>作用,同时其发达的根系,具有很强的固土能力, 对固堤护岸、保护沿海的各种设施有很好的作用。红树林有防治污染、过滤陆源入海污染物、减少海域赤潮发生的作用。我市红树林处在九龙江出口处,保护红树林直接关系 到保护我们的母亲河。此外,红树林还有美化环境及提供林产自然资源等多种作用。其 经济效益、社会效益和生态效益十分显著。</FONT><FONT size=2><B normal?>科氏力</B> (coriolis force)
地球自转会带来一种力,科学家称之为科里奥利力(简称科氏力,是一种非惯性参照系的惯性力)。相对于推或者拉产生的力而言,科氏力并不是一个</FONT><FONT size=2><FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>真实的<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>力,但是它的力量确实非常强大,强大到可以造就台风。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>在旋转的的地球上,流体运动始终受到科氏力的作用,气象学上又称之为地转偏向力。对于大尺度大 气运动,科氏力具有十分重要的意义。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>由於地球自轉的關係,空氣快一開始運動即無法與地球自轉系統同步,因而產生偏轉現象。舉例來說,如果有甲、乙二人站在轉盤上,甲自轉動中心平拋出一球,給位於轉盤邊緣上的乙。站在盤外的丙,所看到求的飛行方向是直線,然而就乙和球的相對位置而言,乙所看到球的移動路徑卻是拋物線。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>假設有一顆砲彈從北極點發射出去,如果地球不會自轉,那麼砲彈的飛行軌跡,從空中鳥瞰,應該是一直線。但是,事實上地球會自轉,因此,隨著地球的自轉,砲彈在空中飛行的軌跡,如果站在北極點看過去,是不斷偏右的。這就是科氏力的原理。</FONT><FONT size=2>
这段话基本就是听力原文。
然后就是如何影响洋流,科学家可以利用它来预测。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>再摘录两段</FONT><FONT size=2>
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<FONT face="Times New Roman">⊙</FONT>為什麼赤道地區不能形成颱風?</FONT><FONT size=2>
因為科氏力能使氣流轉彎,但赤道地區沒有科氏力,所以雖然赤道地區很熱,但仍無法形成颱風,必須在緯度5度以上,才有足夠的科氏力。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>在横渡大西洋前往圣萨尔瓦多的时候,哥伦布发现蔚蓝色的海洋中,有一道深蓝色的河流自东向西流动着。这时,帆船快速地随波漂流。哥伦布在日记中写道:<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>我注意到海水明显地自东向西流动,好像上帝驱使的一样。<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>其实,哥伦布看到的那道深蓝色的<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>河流<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>就是海流。海流是海水大规模相对稳定的运动,它遍及世界各个大洋,组成一个个好似封闭的循环。海流的运动有很多奇怪的地方。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>首先,它运动的方向会在惯性作用下发生偏转。这个现象是物理学家科里奥利首先提出来的,人们就称这种力叫<FONT face="Times New Roman">“</FONT>科氏力<FONT face="Times New Roman">”</FONT>。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>假设在没有科氏力作用下,海洋中运动的船只会沿着直线行进。然而,在科氏力作用下,船只的前进方向马上就改变了。由于我们这个装置是模拟地球北半球的运动,所以,偏转的方向会向右。
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<P 0pt? 0in><B normal?><FONT size=2>What is p53 ?
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>After the identification of the p53 protein and the subsequent cloning of p53 genes from several species, early observations suggested that p53 may function as an oncogene, because overexpression of p53 appeared to cause oncogenic transformation of cells. In the late 1980s, however, several critical discoveries defined the normal function of p53 to be anti-oncogenic. Wild-type p53 genes, when introduced into cells, were found to be growth suppressive. The screening of DNA from colon cancer patients revealed that p53 mutations occur with unusually high frequency in tumor tissue, an observation that was extended to most of the other major forms of human cancer. Indeed, members of Li-Fraumeni cancer-prone families were shown to carry germ-line p53 mutations. The importance of these observations was underscored by the finding that mice that are homozygous null for p53, although developmentally competent, are highly predisposed to tumors.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>The functional character of the p53 protein was determined by experiments showing that p53 contains a strong transcriptional activation domain within its amino terminus and that it is a tetrameric, sequence-specific DNA-biding protein with a defined cognate binding site containing two copies of the 10-mer (5'-RRRCA/TT/AGYYY-3'). Although the p53 protein acts as a transcriptional activator of genes containing p53-binding sites, it is also capable of strongly inhibiting transcription from many genes lacking p53-binding sites. Several oncogenic DNA viruses express viral gene products that associate with and inhibit the trans-activation function of p53, notably SV40 large T antigen, the adenovirus E1B 55-kD protein, and the E6 protein of oncogenic forms of human papillomavirus (HPV E6). In cells, p53 can associate with a 90-kD protein, identified as the product of the mdm-2 oncogene, which is amplified in some types of tumors. When bound to mdm-2, p53 can no longer function as an activator of transcription.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>p53 plays multiple roles in cells. Expression of high levels of wild-type (but not mutant) p53 has two outcomes: cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. The observation that DNA-damaging agents induce levels of p53 in cells led to the definition of p53 as a checkpoint factor, akin, perhaps, to the product of the fad9 gene in yeast. While dispensable for viability, in response to genotoxic stress, p53 acts as an "emergency brake" inducing either arrest or apoptosis, protecting the genome from accumulating excess mutations. Consistent with this notion, cells lacking p53 were shown to be genetically unstable and thus more prone to tumors.
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>(中文版)
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>p53是存在人體細胞內的一種抗癌白質,它有抑制細胞生長及維持遺傳物質完整性的功能。事實上,半數以上的癌症細胞內都有p53的突變,可見其在細胞生長控制上扮演了重要的角色。在正常狀況下,p53的半衰期約只有30分鐘,相當不穩定;然而當細胞經紫外線,離子化射線(如X光,伽傌照射),或當細胞缺氧、缺養時,p53被活化,同時它的穩定性提高,造成細胞內的p53大量增加,除了上述刺激外,化學治療上常用的藥物也有同效。這種p53的活化與增加常導致兩種可能的結果:一是細胞長停止在G1或G2期;另一是細胞採自殺行為(apoptosis)而死亡。細胞由此得以修補損壞(前者),或過度受損的細胞得以從人體除去(後者)。這種依賴p53的"自衛措施"在一些細胞中常因p53的突變而失去功能,使得這些有"缺陷"的細胞能繼續不受控制的生長分裂,導致突變的累積和癌症的生長。
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<P 0pt? 0in><FONT size=2>雖然環境因子影響p53活性及穩定性的事實已知已久,其間的分子機轉仍不清楚。蛋白質的磷酸化(phosphorylation)一向被認為在訊息傳遞上扮演重要的角色。事實上,經由我們及其他實驗室的研究發現,p53在經過紫外線,伽傌射線照射後,其N端的數個胺基酸(第15,20,33,37)有磷酸化的現象。這種磷酸化發生極為快速,幾乎是在照射後數分鐘內即已產生,而持續多久則視胺基酸位置、刺激型態,及細胞種類而異。至於這些磷酸化與p53的反應之關聯性則仍有待證明。最近我們發現有兩個在細胞分裂(Cell cycle)的檢查點(checkpoint)上扮演著重要調控功能的磷酸化酵素(kinase) hCHK1,CHK2可以有效的磷酸化p53。有趣的是,磷酸化的胺基酸中包括了那些可以被紫外線、伽傌線引起的位置,即第15,20及37胺基酸。我們正著手研究可能的CHKs的上游分子及p53在CHKs磷酸化後功能之變化。此外, 不同的環境因子與p53聯繫的方式可能各異,有些可能透過磷酸化以外的方式進行。 我們希望能先定出p53序列中與環境因子互動有關的區域(domain),再由此找出與調節p53穩定性有關的機制及分子。</FONT></P>
[此贴子已经被作者于2005-3-10 11:27:12编辑过] |
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